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  • Indigenous peoples in Costa Rica

    Indigenous peoples in Costa Rica

    Costa Rica has 24 indigenous territories inhabited by eight different peoples. Although Costa Rica has adopted the UN Declaration on the Rights of Indigenous Peoples and ratified ILO Convention 169, rights to land and self-determination is still a struggle for the country’s indigenous population.

The Indigenous World 2025: Costa Rica

Written on . Posted in Costa Rica

The eight Indigenous Peoples that inhabit Costa Rica account for 2.4% of the country’s population. Seven of them are of Chibchense origin: Huetar (in Quitirrisí and Zapatón), Maleku (in Guatuso), Bribri (in Salitre, Cabagra, Talamanca Bribri and Këköldi), Cabécar (in Alto Chirripó, Tayni, Talamanca Cabécar, Telire and China Kichá, Bajo Chirripó, Nairi Awari and Ujarrás), Brunca (in Boruca and Curré), Ngöbe (in Abrojos Montezuma, Coto Brus and Conte Burica, Alto de San Antonio and Osa) and Brörán (in Térraba). The Chorotega in Matambú make up the eighth people and are of Mesoamerican origin. According to the 2010 National Census, just over 100,000 people are recognized as Indigenous in the country.[1]

Although the 24 Indigenous territories cover 7% (3,344 km²) of the national territory, a large part of this has been invaded by non-Indigenous occupants: 52.3% of the Bribri area in Këköldi, 53.1% in Boruca (Brunca territory), 56.4% in Térraba (Brörán people), 58.7% in Guatuso (Maleku people) and up to 88.4% in Zapatón (Huetar territory).[2]

Twenty percent (20%) of Costa Rica’s population lives below the poverty line but, in the case of Indigenous Peoples, the figures are alarming: Cabécar, 94.3%; Ngöbe, 87%; Brörán, 85.0%; Bribri, 70.8%; Brunka, 60.7%; Maleku, 44.3%; Chorotega, 35.5%; and Huetar, 34.2%.[3]

Costa Rica ratified ILO Convention 169 in 1993 and incorporated recognition of its multicultural character into the Political Constitution of the Republic. Even so, the Special Rapporteur on the Rights of Indigenous Peoples indicates that: “Although article 1 of the Constitution [...] stipulates that Costa Rica is a multi-ethnic and multicultural State, it does not recognize the existence of the Indigenous Peoples.”[4]

 Indigenous Law 6,172 of 1977 recognized the Indigenous organizations and established the legal status of Indigenous Peoples, together with mechanisms to prevent the appropriation of land by non-Indigenous persons and procedures and funds for expropriation and compensation. Nevertheless, this law had still not been implemented by 20 December 2023.[5] Quite the contrary, the State has tolerated the invasion and dispossession of Indigenous lands by local landowners and politicians. Indigenous organizations have been demanding regularization of the land for decades. The delay in the studies and the lack of political will to address the problem has led to a land recovery movement that has been evicting squatters since 2011.

A regulation subsequent to the Indigenous Law imposed a concept on the Indigenous Peoples that is alien to their traditional power structures: the Integral Development Associations (ADI). These bodies are under the supervision of the National Directorate for Community Development (DINADECO), an entity that does not have the capacity to understand Indigenous rights or to implement an intercultural approach. For the Special Rapporteur, Francisco Calí Tzay, “as imposed State institutions that report to the executive branch, [they] are not suited to guaranteeing representation for Indigenous Peoples, which have their own system of government.” [6]

The Indigenous organizations that do enjoy legitimacy and act to defend their rights include the Mesa Nacional Indígena de Costa Rica (MNICR), the Frente Nacional de Pueblos Indígenas (FRENAPI), the Red Indígena Bribri y Cabécar (RIBCA), the Asociación Ngöbe del Pacífico, the Asociación Regional Aborigen del Dikes (ARADIKES), the Foro Nacional de Mujeres Indígenas de Costa Rica (INAMU), the Movimiento Indígena Interuniversitario (MIINTÙ) and the Coordinadora de Lucha Sur Sur (CLSS), a federation of Indigenous Peoples' organizations and peasant associations.

This article is part of the 39th edition of The Indigenous World, a yearly overview produced by IWGIA that serves to document and report on the developments Indigenous Peoples have experienced. The photo above is of an Indigenous activist Funa-ay Claver, a Bontok Igorot, standing alongside Indigenous youth activists and others. They are protesting against the repressive laws and human rights violations suffered through the actions and projects of the Government of the Philippines and other actors against Indigenous Peoples at President Marcos Jr’s national address on 22 July 2024 in Quezon City, Philippines. The photo was taken by Katribu Kalipunan ng Katutubong Mamamayan ng Pilipinas and is the cover of The Indigenous World 2025 where this article is featured. Find The Indigenous World 2025 in full here

Numerous barriers to the self-determination of Indigenous Peoples still persisted in 2024. “The Ombudsman's Office has exposed the critical situation of the rights of Indigenous Peoples in Costa Rica, denouncing the constant exclusion, lack of visibility and discrimination, the result of the omissions and actions of public institutions (...) Indigenous Peoples’ access to justice is still pending since there is a long road of ignorance, omissions and non-compliance on the path between legislative recognition and practical implementation.”[7]

The draft Law on the Autonomous Development of Indigenous Peoples of Costa Rica, tabled in 1994, reached its 30-year anniversary without being enacted by any administration. “Its outdatedness merits a new version that recognizes the rights enshrined in the Declaration on the Rights of Indigenous Peoples and ILO Convention 169.”[8] Among other examples of the violation of rights and lack of visibility of Indigenous Peoples is the fact that the National Institute of Statistics and Census has still not published any data on the Indigenous population, despite two years having passed since the 2022 Costa Rica census was published. The Costa Rican state is violating the rights of Indigenous Peoples by omitting to publish specific disaggregated data on the populations of and languages spoken in each of the 24 Indigenous territories. “The 2022 Census data relating to Indigenous Peoples cannot be found on any platform or in any consultable database.”[9]

Worth highlighting, however, is the notable exception of the State University Higher Education System (SESUE) and its coordinating constitutional body, the National Council of Vice-Chancellors (CONARE),[10] which celebrated its 50th anniversary in 2024. There is a real cultural sensitivity on the part of several state university faculties, and this is reflected in a solidarity with and commitment to the important territorial struggles of the Indigenous Peoples of Costa Rica.[11] This solidarity can be seen in the research and social action being undertaken by lecturers and students, in collaboration with Indigenous communities. The 2024 Declaration of the National Council of Vice-Chancellors (CONARE) was entitled “Public Universities with Indigenous Peoples”.[12]

Murder of Indigenous leader Sergio Rojas Ortiz: final judicial closure 

2024 also marked the enshrinement of historic impunity for the murderers of Indigenous individuals and environmentalists in Costa Rica. On 8 January, the Criminal Court of the First Judicial Circuit of the Southern Zone issued its final dismissal in favour of the two men charged with the murder of Indigenous leader and land recovery activist, Sergio Rojas Ortiz, alleging that the evidence gathered did not meet the balance of probability necessary for a trial.[13]

The United Nations (UN) deeply regretted[14] the final judicial closure of the case that had been opened on the 2019 murder of Bribri leader, Sergio Rojas Ortiz,[15] and expressed its concern at the lack of relevant and comprehensive application of the principles of intercultural access to justice in the investigations. It also stressed the urgency of triggering the necessary legal mechanisms to ensure that investigations are resumed as soon as possible to prevent the case from going unpunished.[16]

Indeed, the closure of the case has generated a sense of impunity within the Indigenous territories.[17] There was an upsurge in violence towards the recovered communities in southern Costa Rica: insults and verbal threats in Salitre and China Kichá, as well as criminal arson in Crün Shürin. During March and April, the Brörán population had to combat the intentional burning of some 200 hectares of forest, reforested area, pastures and crops on the recovered Crün Shürin farm.[18]

Paradoxically, in 2024, the Costa Rican government institutionalized 9 August, International Day of the World’s Indigenous Peoples, as a national celebration. On this very day,  the UN urged the State to get justice done and promptly resolve the murders of Indigenous leaders, as well as speed up the implementation of the recommendations of the Special Rapporteur on the Rights of Indigenous Peoples.[19]

On 19 August, the second trial of the perpetrator of the murder of the leader of the Brörán people of Térraba, Jehry Rivera, began in the Criminal Court of Pérez Zeledón.[20] The confessed murderer of the Indigenous leader was originally convicted in 2023 before being released due to a mis-trial.[21] In this retrial, the prosecutor recounted how Jehry Rivera was struggling, with men holding him from behind, when he was shot three times in the back.[22] Nevertheless, the judges acquitted Juan Eduardo Varela Rojas of the crime of aggravated homicide, arguing that neither the statements nor evidence proved the case of either the Prosecutor's Office or the plaintiff.[23]

The Ombudsman's Office[24] vehemently called on the State to combat impunity and prevent the escalation of violence within Indigenous territories.[25] Outraged, more than 900 people and national and international organizations signed a public vote of censure against the Court for acquitting the confessed murderer.[26] According to Indigenous Ngöbe leader[27] Zeidy Brukwa:

Here, those of us who defend the right to live well, to the land, to natural resources, to those who defend Mother Nature (...), can be assassinated and nothing happens in this country, a country that is a model of democracy at the international level.[28]

The UN urged Costa Rica not to let the murders of Jehry Rivera and Sergio Rojas Ortiz go unpunished, regretting that the judicial processes had not led to the punishment of the material and intellectual authors of these crimes, and called on the country to urgently take the necessary action to prevent further acts of violence against the integrity of Indigenous Peoples and their territories.[29] Unfortunately, no action appears to be envisaged by the State in this regard.[30]

Costa Rican Indigenous youth: continuity of an absence[31]

The scarcity of available information on Indigenous youth in Costa Rica confirms that “the continued absence of Indigenous youth from Costa Rican institutions is evident, regrettable and worrying”.[32] In a study on Indigenous youth in Costa Rica,[33] the authors note:

In more than 30 institutional contexts, there is no possibility of discussing the citizenship conditions of Indigenous youth since this population is not conceived of as such; the regulatory silence in this regard is a visible sign of the work that remains to be done to include Indigenous youth as active citizens in the youth of today's 21st century.       

The predominant absence of Indigenous youth as a distinct element of the population is evidence of the poor effect that the focus on ethnicity and the critical discussions on raciality have had on the legislative framework on youth in Costa Rica.[34]

They further note that laudable efforts such as the Public Youth Policies 2014-2019 and 2020-2024 have not been able to overcome this fact.[35]

The authors of this important exploratory study conclude “that much more state and inter-institutional work is needed to achieve conditions of youth citizenship that are truly favourable to the young Indigenous population of Costa Rica”.[36] The research revealed:

(...) a negative reality based on a sustained disregard for young Indigenous citizens; this demonstrates the urgency of expanding the margins of understanding of youth with a broader ethnic perspective. (...) To be a young Indigenous person is a condition that cannot continue to persist in the regulatory silence and continuity of its absence.[37]

Two years after this publication, in July 2024, the Ombudsman's Office issued a special press release[38] stating that:

Costa Rica has excluded Indigenous children from the National Policy for Children and Adolescents (2024-2036).[39] This represents a flagrant violation of the best interests of Indigenous children, their rights to equality and non-discrimination, and their rights to participation, survival and development, among others. The Ombudsman's Office has requested that the Constitutional Chamber declare the agreements of the Council for Children and Adolescents to be in violation of the law, and order the immediate implementation of a consultation process with the children and adolescents of the 24 Indigenous territories, thus guaranteeing the inclusion of their needs and aspirations into the National Policy for Children and Adolescents and in their action plans.

Intergenerational resilience on Talamanca Indigenous territories

A decade ago, a sharp increase was observed in the rate of suicide among young people in the Indigenous communities of Talamanca. “In 2014, in the canton of Talamanca, a cantonal emergency was declared due to the problem of suicide among the young population (...). Against this backdrop, research entitled Psychosocial analysis and development of community actions to address and prevent suicide among Indigenous Bribri youth was undertaken as a social action project of the University of Costa Rica.”[40] The main conclusion identifies a weakening of cultural identities and subjective construction in the Bribri Indigenous territory. The research also enabled us to conclude that linking and strengthening these cultural aspects would form a way of resisting and addressing this problem.

In this sense, the Talamanca Cantonal Commission to Address the Risk of Suicide responded with a valuable document[41] inspired by the stories and wisdom of the Bribri elders who wanted to contribute to the resilience of youth by valuing their culture. Historias de resistencia Bribri recounts the creation of the Bribri people according to their own world vision.

Indigenous youth in university classrooms

On a more optimistic note, it is important to highlight the fact that, despite several factors of structural exclusion, the number of Indigenous students in Costa Rica's state universities continues to grow. The trend shows that the percentage of Indigenous women attending university (64.7%) is higher than that of Indigenous men (31.4%).[42] For a decade, the State University of Distance Education (UNED Costa Rica) has been offering, free of charge, the programme “Technician in Local Management for Indigenous Peoples”, based around the cultural, social and political relevance of an Indigenous perspective. Indigenous graduates of this programme become professionals with the leadership skills to foster social research within their own Indigenous communities and strengthen community initiatives of good governance and good living.[43] The book Voces Indígenas is an inspiring compilation of life stories of Indigenous women and men, providing exemplary accounts of those who have decided to access distance higher education.[44]

Finally, it is important to mention the Jirondai Project, a project that has since 2005 been facilitating and accompanying artistic creation processes with Indigenous people of different generations, combining electronic music with ancestral songs and traditional music.[45] The Jirondai Project represents an immense contribution to the memory of culture, and acts as an amplifier of the voices of Indigenous artists.

Dr. Bettina Durocher is an agricultural engineer with a Master's degree in rural development, a postgraduate degree in gender studies and a doctorate in education and intercultural mediation. She has published studies on Indigenous livelihoods, socio-environmental conflict and Indigenous women's knowledge of food security and forest conservation. Contact: This email address is being protected from spambots. You need JavaScript enabled to view it.

 

This article is part of the 39th edition of The Indigenous World, a yearly overview produced by IWGIA that serves to document and report on the developments Indigenous Peoples have experienced. The photo above is of an Indigenous activist Funa-ay Claver, a Bontok Igorot, standing alongside Indigenous youth activists and others. They are protesting against the repressive laws and human rights violations suffered through the actions and projects of the Government of the Philippines and other actors against Indigenous Peoples at President Marcos Jr’s national address on 22 July 2024 in Quezon City, Philippines. The photo was taken by Katribu Kalipunan ng Katutubong Mamamayan ng Pilipinas and is the cover of The Indigenous World 2025 where this article is featured. Find The Indigenous World 2025 in full here

  

Notes and references

[1] Although the results of the 2022 Census were published two years ago, Costa Rica's National Institute of Statistics and Census (INEC) has not yet published the data on the country's Indigenous population (except for Table 10 on the number of people living in the same house, by Indigenous territory, the data of which is highly underestimated). reResultadosEstimacionesSocialesVivienda2022.xlsx

[2] Calí Tzay, F. (28 September 2022). Report of the United Nations Special Rapporteur on the Rights of Indigenous Peoples, José Francisco Calí Tzay, on his visit to Costa Rica in December 2021. Presented at the United Nations General Assembly. https://docs.un.org/en/A/HRC/51/28/ADD.1

[3] Calí Tzay, F. (17 December 2021).“End-of-Mission Statement by the United Nations Special Rapporteur on the Rights of Indigenous Peoples, José Francisco Calí Tzay, at the conclusion of his visit to Costa Rica.” Office of the United Nations High Commissioner for Human Rights. https://www.ohchr.org/es/statements/2021/12/end-mission-statement-united-nations-special-rapporteur-rights-indigenous

[4] Calí Tzay, Francisco, Op. cit., p.4.

[5] Ministry of Justice and Peace. (21 December 2023). The first compensation payment was made to an occupant of the Indigenous territory in Conde Burica. https://mjp.go.cr/Comunicacion/Nota?nom=Se-realizo-el-primer-pago-por-indemnizacion-a-un-ocupante-de-territorio-indigena-en-Conte-Burica

[6] Ibidem, p.5.

[7] Press Office of the Ombudsman of the Republic. (6 August 2024). Newsletter: Defensoría analiza acceso a la justicia de los pueblos indígenas. https://www.dhr.go.cr/index.php/mas/comunicacion/comunicados-de-prensa/defensoria-analiza-acceso-a-la-justicia-de-los-pueblos-indigenas

[8] Office of the Ombudsman of the Republic. Annual Report 2023-2024, p.64. informe_23_24.pdf

[9] David Solís Aguilar, researcher (January 2025). Personal communication.

[10] The National Council of Vice-Chancellors (CONARE) comprises the Vice-Chancellors of the University of Costa Rica, the Technological Institute of Costa Rica, the National University, the State Distance-Learning University, the National Technical University and the Director of the Higher Education Planning Office (without voting rights).

[11] Particularly notable is their sustained support for communities recovering territory in the South Pacific region.

[12] National Council of Vice-Chancellors (CONARE). 2024 Declaration: Public Universities with Indigenous Peoples. https://www.conare.ac.cr/declaratoria-2024-universidades-publicas-con-los-pueblos-originarios/

[13] Pomareda García Fabiola. (22 January 2024). “Familia de Sergio Rojas acudirá a la Comisión Interamericana de Derechos Humanos ante archivo del caso de homicidio”. Semanario Universitario. https://semanariouniversidad.com/pais/familia-de-sergio-rojas-acudira-a-la-comision-interamericana-de-derechos-humanos-ante-archivo-del-caso-de-homicidio/

[14] United Nations System. (19 January 2024). Comunicado oficial: Costa Rica no merece que el autor del asesinato de Sergio Rojas quede impune. https://costarica.un.org/es/258198-sistema-de-las-naciones-unidas-%E2%80%9Ccosta-rica-no-merece-que-el-asesinato-de-sergio-rojas-quede

[15] Camacho Nassar, Carlos. Costa Rica. In Mamo, Dwayne (Ed.), The Indigenous World 2020. IWGIA. https://iwgia.org/en/costa-rica/3619-iw-2020-costa-rica.html

Camacho Nassar, Carlos. Costa Rica. In Mamo, Dwayne (Ed.), The Indigenous World 2021. IWGIA. https://iwgia.org/en/costa-rica/4213-iw-2021-costa-rica.html

[16] United Nations System. (19 January 2024). Comunicado de prensa: Costa Rica no merece que el autor del asesinato de Sergio Rojas quede impune. https://costarica.un.org/es/258198-sistema-de-las-naciones-unidas-%E2%80%9Ccosta-rica-no-merece-que-el-asesinato-de-sergio-rojas-quede

[17] Office of the Ombudsman of the Republic. Informe Anual de Labores 2023-2024, p.64. https://www.dhr.go.cr/images/informes-anuales/informe_23_24.pdf

[18](1 April 2024). “Denuncian incendio provocado en territorio indígena Brörán-Térraba.” Elpaís.cr.

https://www.elpais.cr/2024/04/01/denuncian-incendio-provocado-en-territorio-indigena-broran-terraba/

[19] Calí Tzay, F. A/HRC/51/28/Add.1: Visit to Costa Rica - Report of the Special Rapporteur on the Rights of Indigenous Peoples, José Francisco Calí Tzay | OHCHR

[20] Pomareda García Fabiola. (17 August 2024). “Nuevo juicio por asesinato del activista indígena Jehry Rivera se realizará del 19 al 23 de agosto”. Semanario Universidad. https://semanariouniversidad.com/pais/nuevo-juicio-por-asesinato-del-activista-indigena-jehry-rivera-se-realizara-del-19-al-23-de-agosto/

[21] Durocher, Bettina. Costa Rica. In Mamo, Dwayne (Comp.), The Indigenous World 2024. IWGIA. https://iwgia.org/en/costa-rica/5381-iw-2024-costa-rica.html.

[22] Pomareda García Fabiola. (17 August 2024). “Nuevo juicio por asesinato del activista indígena Jehry Rivera se realizará del 19 al 23 de agosto”. Semanario Universidad. https://semanariouniversidad.com/pais/nuevo-juicio-por-asesinato-del-activista-indigena-jehry-rivera-se-realizara-del-19-al-23-de-agosto/

[23] Pomareda García Fabiola. (19 September 2024). “Tribunal de Pérez Zeledón absuelve a juan Eduardo Varela por el homicidio del líder indígena Jehry Rivera”. Semanario Universidad. https://semanariouniversidad.com/pais/tribunal-de-perez-zeledon-absuelve-a-juan-eduardo-varela-por-el-homicidio-del-lider-indigena-jehry-rivera/

[24] The Office of the Ombudsman of the Republic of Costa Rica is an oversight body that forms part of the legislative branch. The purpose of this institution is to ensure that the activity of the public sector complies with law and morality such that the rights and interests of the inhabitants are always protected. https://www.dhr.go.cr/index.php/la-defensoria/quienes-somos

[25] Sergio Rojas Ortiz had previously been the victim of murder attempts and was the subject of precautionary measures ordered by the Inter-American Commission on Human Rights in 2015 aimed at guaranteeing the life and personal integrity of the members of the Brörán and Bribri Indigenous Peoples. These measures were never implemented.

[26] Pomareda García Fabiola. (31 October 2024). “Más de 900 personas y organizaciones censuran a tribunal de Pérez Zeledón que absolvió a asesino confeso de Jehry Rivera”. Semanario Universidad.

Más de 900 personas y organizaciones censuran a tribunal de Pérez Zeledón que absolvió a asesino confeso de Jehry Rivera • Semanario Universidad

[27] And part of FRENAPI, a coordinating body founded by Sergio Rojas.

[28] Pomareda García Fabiola. (31 October 2024). “Más de 900 personas y organizaciones censuran a tribunal de Pérez Zeledón que absolvió a asesino confeso de Jehry Rivera”. Semanario Universidad.

Más de 900 personas y organizaciones censuran a tribunal de Pérez Zeledón que absolvió a asesino confeso de Jehry Rivera • Semanario Universidad

[29] United Nations System in Costa Rica. (20 September 2024). Comunicado de prensa: ONU pide a Costa Rica no dejar impune el asesinato de Jehry Rivas.

https://costarica.un.org/es/279189-onu-pide-costa-rica-no-dejar-impune-el-asesinato-de-l%C3%ADder-ind%C3%ADgena-jerhy-rivera

[30] Nor were precautionary measures implemented for the recovered communities of the South Pacific, as ordered by the Inter-American Court of Human Rights in 2015.

[31] Gutiérrez Slon, Juan Antonio and Moya Aburto, César. (2022). “The continuity of an absence: Indigenous youth in Costa Rican institutions”. Investigación en Juventudes: Revista del Consejo de la Persona Joven. Vol.9 Number 1, pp.1-26. Center for Research in Culture and Development (CICDE) of the State Distance-Learning University (UNED). https://cpj.go.cr/wp-content/uploads/2022/10/1-Juventud-indigena-en-la-institucionalidad-1.pdf

[32] Ibidem, p.23.

[33] Ibid.

[34] From the National Youth Council and a 2006 UNICEF study respectively.

[35] Gutiérrez Slon, J. A. and Moya Aburto, C. (2022). Op. cit., p.23

[36] Ibid.

[37] Ibid.

[38] Office of the Ombudsman of the Republic. Press Office. (18 July 2024). Boletín: “Costa Rica excluyó a niñez indígena de la política nacional”.

https://www.dhr.go.cr/index.php/mas/comunicacion/comunicados-de-prensa/costa-rica-excluyo-a-ninez-indigena-de-politica-nacional-2#:~:text=Costa%20Rica%20excluy%C3%B3%20de%20la,discriminaci%C3%B3n%2C%20sus%20derechos%20de%20participaci%C3%B3n%2C

[39] National Policy for Children and Adolescents-2024-2036: https://pani.go.cr/wp-content/uploads/2024/04/Politica-Nacional-de-la-Ninez-y-la-Adolescencia-2024-2036_compressed-comprimido-comprimido-comprimido-1.pdf

[40] Arroyo Araya, Helga and Herrera González, Damián Gerardo. (2019). “Psychosocial Analysis of Suicide in Young Bribris People.” Revista Reflexiones 88 (2): pp.7-22

https://www.researchgate.net/publication/333739323_Analisis_psicosocial_del_suicidio_en_personas_jovenes_indigenas_Bribris

[41] Historias de Resistencia Bribri. https://es.scribd.com/document/581463067/Historias-de-Resistencia-Bribri

[42] La Vida Estudiantil Intercultural, Informe Anual de Labores 2023. Informe 2023 PROCAI_0.pdf

[43] Katherine (17 September 2021) ‘Técnico en Gestión Local para Pueblos Originarios abre inscripciones para población de Guanacaste”. Mensaje. Técnico en Gestión Local para Pueblos Originarios abre inscripciones para población de Guanacaste - Periódico Mensaje Guanacaste

[44] Mabel Castrillo Hernández, Máximo Elizondo Castro, Esmeralda Pérez Hernández and Cinthya Mora González. Voces Indígenas. UNED. https://editorial.uned.ac.cr/gpd-voces-indigenas-9789968488037.html

[45] Emilio Vargas Mena (January 2025). Personal communication. Jirondai Project | Instagram, Facebook | Linktree

Tags: Land rights, Youth, Human rights

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