The Indigenous World 2026: Vietnam

Written on 22 April 2026. Posted in Vietnam

As a multi-ethnic country, Vietnam has 54 recognized ethnic groups, 53 of which are ethnic minorities. These groups comprise 14%^[1] of the country’s total population of around 100 million.^[2] Each ethnic minority group has its own distinct language, culture and traditions. The term “ethnic minorities” is often used interchangeably with “Indigenous Peoples” by international agencies working in Vietnam.

All ethnic minorities have Vietnamese citizenship and Vietnam’s constitution recognizes that all people have equal rights. There is a higher proportion of peoples living in poverty among ethnic minority communities.

Multidimensional poverty rates in the Northern Mountains and Central Highlands regions, where the majority of ethnic minorities live, is more than double the national average. The proportion of people without education certificates in ethnic minority groups is twice that of the Kinh and Hoa (Chinese-Vietnamese) peoples. In addition, the gaps in income and expenditure between the ethnic minorities and Kinh and Hoa people have widened in recent years.^[3]

Vietnam is a party to seven of the nine core international human rights instruments and continues to consider the possibility of acceding to the International Convention for the Protection of All Persons from Enforced Disappearance (ICPPED) and the International Convention on the Protection of the Rights of All Migrant Workers and Members of Their Families (ICRMW). Vietnam has not ratified ILO Convention 169 and, although Vietnam voted in favor of the UN Declaration on the Rights of Indigenous Peoples (UNDRIP), it does not recognize ethnic minorities as Indigenous Peoples.

This article is part of the 40^th edition of The Indigenous World, a yearly overview produced by IWGIA that serves to document and report on the developments Indigenous Peoples have experienced. Find The Indigenous World 2026 in full here

Denial of Indigenous Peoples and escalation of repression in 2025

Vietnam is a pluri-national State with Indigenous Peoples in Southeast Asia offering a rich history of decolonization and demilitarization from multiple European and America conflicts in the 19^th and 20^th century. Indigenous Peoples continue to challenge settler societies that arrive in their ancestral homelands to exploit the natural environment and subjugate Indigenous Peoples. Indigenous Peoples have inhabited their sacred lands since time immemorial, honoring their reciprocal relationship with their own community and biocultural landscapes to provide basic collective economic, social and cultural rights. Indigenous Peoples have had borders placed on their traditional lands as maps were redrawn and settler society governance forced upon them, denying the Indigenous language of places and imposing cultural norms on Indigenous nations. Currently, Vietnam denies Indigenous Peoples their self-identification and officially recognizes 54 “ethnic groups” within its constitutional and legal framework. The Government of Vietnam continues to assert that no Indigenous Peoples exist within its borders, despite the presence of communities that meet internationally accepted criteria for Indigenous status, including historical continuity within pre-colonial societies, distinct cultural and linguistic identities, and self-identification as Indigenous. While Vietnam voted in favor of the United Nations Declaration on the Rights of Indigenous Peoples (UNDRIP), it has neither incorporated Indigenous recognition into domestic law nor ratified ILO Convention No. 169 on Indigenous and Tribal Peoples.

Many Indigenous Peoples who are demanding their rights under the UNDRIP in daily life are facing persecution and increasing reprisals. Indigenous Peoples from the Mekong Delta to the Mountain Highlands face common challenges from traditional spiritual honoring of ancestral sacred sites connected to the lands and waters through to modern religious practices at temples and churches denying fundamental freedoms.

In 2025, the persistent denial of Indigenous identity was accompanied by an escalation of repression against Indigenous Peoples’ Human Rights Defenders, particularly among the Khmer-Krom in the Mekong Delta and Montagnard (Indigenous Peoples of the Central Highlands) communities. Indigenous Peoples who are simply exercising basic human rights experience a denial of dignity and destruction of the natural environment from an authoritarian regime that denies both civil and political rights as well as economic, social and cultural rights. Indigenous Peoples who are commemorating cultural practices and honoring global dates of human rights recognition from International Women’s Day to Indigenous Peoples’ Day, experience a gross pattern of violations and violence. Arrests, prolonged pre-trial detention, allegations of torture and coerced confessions, and closed-door trials all raise serious concerns regarding Vietnam’s compliance with international human rights obligations. Indigenous Peoples practicing their own culture are regularly criminalized and national laws are utilized to undermine recognized human rights.

While Vietnam has improved its ratification of international human rights instruments and appears at UN human rights treaty bodies, the laws on paper and the government responses to multiple concerns raised are ignored and Indigenous Peoples are rendered invisible. This practice continues with the multiple UN Human Rights Council Special Procedures that have raised concerns and the government denying any wrongdoing by blaming the Indigenous Peoples.

The lack of legal recognition for Indigenous Peoples further exacerbates their vulnerability. Indigenous advocacy—whether related to cultural preservation, religious autonomy, or dissemination of information about Indigenous rights under international law—is routinely treated as a political or security threat rather than as the exercise of protected rights. This structural denial provides the backdrop for the events that unfolded in 2025.

Arrests and prosecution of Khmer-Krom human rights defenders

Vietnam’s legal framework contains several broadly worded national security and public order provisions that are frequently used to criminalize peaceful expression and association. Chief among these is Article 331 of the Penal Code, which criminalizes “abusing democratic freedoms to infringe upon the interests of the State”. International human rights organizations and UN experts have repeatedly criticized Article 331 for its vagueness and incompatibility with international standards on freedom of expression.

On 27 March 2025, Vietnamese authorities in Tra Vinh Province arrested three prominent Khmer-Krom human rights defenders: Venerable Kim Som Rinh, Mr. Thach Nga, and Mr. Thach Xuan Dong. All three were charged under Article 331 of the Penal Code for alleged “abuse of democratic freedoms”, reportedly in connection with peaceful social media activity and public statements addressing human rights violations, Indigenous identity, and religious freedom.^[4]

The individuals are well-known within the Khmer-Krom community. Venerable Kim Som Rinh is a Theravada Buddhist monk and community leader; Mr. Thach Nga and Mr. Thach Xuan Dong have been active in peaceful advocacy related to Indigenous rights and cultural preservation. Following their arrest, all three were held in pre-trial detention for approximately eight months, during which time they were reportedly denied access to legal counsel and family visits. The Khmer-Krom raised the case at the UN Permanent Forum on Indigenous Issues and through various UN Human Rights Council Special Procedures.

On 18 November 2025, the People’s Court of Region 12 in Vinh Long Province conducted a closed-door trial and sentenced each defendant to three and a half years’ imprisonment. The trial was not open to the public, independent observers, or diplomatic representatives. According to statements by the Khmers’ Kampuchea-Krom Federation (KKF) and the Unrepresented Nations and Peoples Organization (UNPO), the proceedings failed to meet basic fair-trial standards, including transparency and the right to an effective defense.^[5]

On the same day, Ms. Thach Thi Hoa Ri, a Khmer-Krom woman involved in organizing International Women’s Day activities and Indigenous rights awareness events, was also reportedly arrested under Article 331, underscoring the widening scope of repression against civil society engagement within Khmer-Krom communities.^[6]

Allegations of ill-treatment and incommunicado detention

Serious concerns were raised regarding the treatment of the detained activists, particularly Mr. Thach Nga, who was reportedly held incommunicado for several months. According to documentation from the U.S. Commission on International Religious Freedom (USCIRF), Mr. Thach Nga displayed visible facial scarring consistent with having been beaten while in custody.^[7]

In October 2025, multiple UN Special Procedures mandate holders, including the Special Rapporteur on the situation of human rights defenders, issued a joint communication to the Government of Vietnam expressing concern at the arbitrary arrest, detention, and alleged ill-treatment of Khmer-Krom Indigenous Peoples, including monks and lay activists associated with independent Buddhist temples in the Mekong Delta. The communication highlighted prolonged incommunicado detention, denial of access to lawyers, and restrictions on religious freedom.^[8]

The Office of the High Commissioner for Human Rights (OHCHR) also issued a public statement in August 2025 expressing alarm at the “ongoing repression of Khmer-Krom Indigenous Peoples”, noting a pattern of criminalization linked to peaceful expression of Indigenous identity and religious autonomy.^[9]

Transnational repression and the Montagnard case

Repression of Indigenous activists in 2025 extended beyond Vietnam’s borders. In late November 2025, Y Quynh Bđăp, a Montagnard (Êđê) human rights advocate and recognized refugee, was forcibly returned from Thailand to Vietnam. Prior to his return, multiple international organizations had warned that he faced a high risk of torture and other serious human rights violations if transferred.

UN experts and human rights organizations criticized the extradition as a breach of the principle of non-refoulement, noting that Mr. Y Quynh Bđăp had previously been convicted in absentia on terrorism-related charges widely regarded as politically motivated.^[10]

This case illustrates the broader regional risks faced by Indigenous activists from Vietnam, including surveillance, cross-border cooperation between security agencies, and the shrinking availability of safe refuge.

Land law & Indigenous resilience response

The Vietnam 2024 Land Law (No. 31/2024/QH15) was enacted and took effect on 1 August 2024 and continued to be in force through 2025 and into 2026. While it includes mechanisms that support land access for ethnic minority households, it does not create distinct legal rights for Indigenous Peoples, and no major re-enactment occurred in 2025. Implementation guidance and secondary regulations were developed after its enactment to support its practical application but the core law remains unchanged.

Indigenous advocates and spiritual leaders that defend their lands continue to be sentenced and face a pattern of unjust detention and forced confessions.

In a remote corner of the Mekong Delta, nestled within the Tong Hung hamlet of Loan My, the Khmer-Krom community has been striving against all odds to uphold its cultural heritage and religious traditions. However, Vietnamese authorities in Vinh Long province have met their aspirations with hostility and oppression, culminating in the demolition by forces of a crucial religious hall, making it challenging for elders to access religious services and for children learning their native Khmer language at temples in neighboring hamlets. Mrs. Thach Thi Sa Bach and her fellow villagers valiantly defended their right to preserve their religious and cultural space but their resistance was met with indifference and hostility. Despite initial promises of support from the local authorities, the community faced escalating pressure and eventual destruction.

Impact on Indigenous Peoples

For the Khmer-Krom and other Indigenous communities, the events of 2025 only reinforced longstanding patterns of discrimination and marginalization. The criminalization of peaceful advocacy related to Indigenous identity, religion, and human rights has had a chilling effect on community leadership and civic participation. The use of closed-door trials and allegations of forced confessions further undermines trust in judicial institutions and the rule of law.

Vietnam’s continued refusal to recognize Indigenous Peoples prevents meaningful engagement with international standards designed to protect collective rights, including cultural survival, religious freedom, and self-determination. Instead, Indigenous identity itself becomes a liability, exposing individuals to prosecution and imprisonment.

Khmer-Krom peoples want to speak their language, see their culture respected in daily practices, secure protection of sacred sites, and reverse decades of discrimination.

Khmer-Krom and other Indigenous Peoples in Vietnam recognize the need for immediate release of all peoples detained for peaceful exercise of their rights. The Khmer-Krom are also calling for fundamental freedoms, including fair trials with public hearings and independent legal counsel, to be ensured. Criminalization for being Indigenous under Article 331 highlights the need to repeal or, as a minimum, amend the penal code. There must be immediate investigations into the ill-treatment and torture faced by Indigenous Peoples. Overall, Indigenous Peoples must be recognized in domestic laws and policies consistent with the UNDRIP.

Joshua Cooper is a lecturer at the University of Hawai’i’s Kamakakūokalani Center for Hawaiian Studies and the University of New South Wales Diplomacy Training Program. He also teaches at the Global Leadership Academy for Human Rights Advocacy and serves as the Executive Director of Oceania Human Rights and CEO of The GOOD Group, a global strategic litigation & liberation movement

This article is part of the 40^th edition of The Indigenous World, a yearly overview produced by IWGIA that serves to document and report on the developments Indigenous Peoples have experienced. Find The Indigenous World 2026 in full here

Notes and references

^[1] “Vietnam ensures rights to equality for ethnic groups: Official.” VietnamPlus, 1 December 2023. https://en.vietnamplus.vn/vietnam-ensures-rights-to-equality-for-ethnic-groups-official/272140.vnp

^[2] “In 2023, Vietnam's population will reach 100.3 million people, with an average life expectancy of 73.7 years.” Vietnam.vn, 30 December 2023. https://www.vietnam.vn/en/nam-2023-dan-so-viet-nam-dat-1003-trieu-dan-tuoi-tho-trung-binh-737-tuoi/

^[3] United Nations, Vietnam. “One UN Results Report 2019: Vietnam.” Hanoi, Vietnam: United Nations Vietnam, 2020. https://vietnam.un.org/en/52299-one-un-results-report-2019

^[4] Radio Free Asia, 27 March 2025: https://www.rfa.org/english/vietnam/2025/03/27/vietnam-khmer-krom-monk-activists-arrested/

^[5] UNPO & KKF, 20 November 2025: https://unpo.org/unpo-and-kkf-call-out-vietnams-unjust-sentencing-of-khmer-krom-human-rights-defenders/

^[6] KKF, 18 November 2025: https://khmerkrom.org/kkf-condemns-vietnams-unjust-sentencing-of-khmer-krom-human-rights-defenders-in-closed-door-trial/

^[7] USCIRF, Forb Victims Database: https://www.uscirf.gov/religious-prisoners-conscience/forb-victims-database/thach-nga

^[8] UN Special Procedures communication summary, via Safeguard Defenders, 2 October 2025: https://srdefenders.org/viet-nam-arrest-detention-and-ill-treatment-of-khmer-krom-indigenous-peoples-and-human-rights-defenders-joint-communication/

^[9] OHCHR, 25 August 2025: https://www.ohchr.org/en/press-releases/2025/08/viet-nam-un-experts-alarmed-ongoing-repression-khmer-krom-indigenous-peoples

^[10] Human Rights Watch, 2 December 2025: https://www.hrw.org/news/2025/12/02/thailand-montagnard-activist-extradited-to-vietnam; OHCHR, 2025: https://www.ohchr.org/en/press-releases/2025/12/un-experts-alarmed-y-quynh-bdaps-extradition-thailand-viet-nam

Tags: Global governance