The Indigenous World 2026: Thailand

Written on 22 April 2026. Posted in Thailand

The Indigenous Peoples of Thailand live mainly in three geographical regions of the country: Indigenous fisher communities (the Chao Ley) and small populations of hunter-gatherers in the south (Mani people); small groups on the Korat plateau of the north-east and east; and the many different highland peoples in the north and north-west of the country (previously known by the derogatory term “Chao-Khao,” or “hill tribes”). Nine so-called “hill tribes” are officially recognized: the Hmong, Karen, Lisu, Mien, Akha, Lahu, Lua, Thin and Khamu.^[1]

            Estimates put Thailand’s Indigenous population at around 6.1 million people, or 9.68% of the total population.^[2] According to the Department of Social Development and Welfare (2002), the total officially recognized population numbers 925,825, distributed across 20 provinces in the north and west of the country. There are still no figures available for the Indigenous groups in the south and north-east. When national boundaries were drawn in South-East Asia during the colonial era and in the wake of decolonization, many Indigenous Peoples living in remote highlands and forests became divided. For example, you can find Lua and Karen people in both Thailand and Myanmar, and Akha people in Laos, Myanmar, south-west China and Thailand.

            Thailand is a signatory to the Convention on Biological Diversity (CBD), the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change (UNFCCC), the Convention on the Rights of the Child (CRC), the International Covenant on Civil and Political Rights (ICCPR), the International Covenant on Economic, Social and Cultural Rights (ICESCR), the Convention on the Elimination of All Forms of Discrimination Against Women (CEDAW), the Convention on the Elimination of All Forms of Racial Discrimination (CERD), the Convention Against Torture and other Cruel, Inhuman or Degrading Treatment or Punishment (CAT), the Convention on the Rights of Persons with Disabilities (CRPD) and the Universal Declaration of Human Rights (UDHR). It voted in support of the United Nations Declaration on the Rights of Indigenous Peoples (UNDRIP) but does not officially recognize the existence of Indigenous Peoples in the country. Section 70 of the 2016 Constitution refers to “Ethnic groups”.

            In 2010, the Thai government passed two Cabinet resolutions to restore the traditional livelihoods of the Chao Ley^[3] and Karen, on 2 June and 3 August respectively.

This article is part of the 40^th edition of The Indigenous World, a yearly overview produced by IWGIA that serves to document and report on the developments Indigenous Peoples have experienced. Find The Indigenous World 2026 in full here

Land and resource tenure insecurity remains a persistent problem faced by Indigenous Peoples in Thailand, and there is still no clear or concrete solution. Although the Thai government has begun to open up more space—particularly through amendments to laws governing protected areas in 2019 (B.E. 2562) and by adopting policies to address land issues in forest areas under the framework of the National Land Policy Committee (NLPC)—these approaches have been only temporary and short-term measures.

Addressing land issues in protected forest areas

In 2019 (B.E. 2562), the Ministry of Natural Resources and Environment proposed amendments to the National Parks Act and the Wildlife Preservation and Protection Act in an effort to address longstanding problems related to forest and land management. These principles were incorporated into Section 64 of the National Parks Act and Section 121 of the Wildlife Preservation and Protection Act, B.E. 2562.

To operationalize these provisions, the Cabinet passed a resolution on 15 November 2024 approving the issuance of Royal Decrees on conservation and natural resource management projects. These decrees apply to national parks under Section 64 of the National Parks Act, B.E. 2562, and to wildlife sanctuaries and non-hunting areas under Section 121 of the Wildlife Preservation and Protection Act, B.E. 2562, as proposed by the Ministry of Natural Resources and Environment. This would result in limiting Indigenous Peoples’ access to their natural resources and farmland, and would decrease their security in general.

However, the Royal Decrees—issued as subordinate legislation that elaborate the details and methods of implementation—sparked widespread concern among Indigenous Peoples, particularly those living in forest areas. Many feared that the decrees would negatively affect their ways of life and livelihoods by decreasing their access to natural resources and demanding that they plant trees on their farms. As a result, these communities called on the government to address four key issues arising from the new regulations (see IWGIA Yearbook 2025 for further details).

The government’s response was widely perceived as slow and lacking in sincerity. Consequently, villagers under the banner of the Assembly of Forest-Dwelling Communities (AFC/SCP), together with affected Indigenous community networks, organized another protest in front of the Chiang Mai Provincial Hall on 24 March 2025. During the demonstration, they submitted a letter—via the Deputy Governor of Chiang Mai, Mr. Sivakorn Buapong—urging the government to honor its commitments under the four-point agreement signed on 29 November 2024 and to expedite its implementation.

On 1 April 2025,^[4] Deputy Prime Minister Prasert Jantararuangtong met with the protesters and informed them that the outcomes of negotiations on all six demands had already been submitted to the Cabinet. The Cabinet subsequently decided to accept the principles and to formally record agreements on guidelines for resolving the issues, including the following measures:

1. Amendment of forest laws: Expedite the appointment of a committee to amend the National Parks Act B.E. 2562 (2019) and the Wildlife Preservation and Protection Act B.E. 2562 (2019), with equal representation from government agencies and civil society. During the amendment process, preparations to declare 23 additional protected forest areas will be suspended. The committee is to be appointed within 30 days, with coordination already underway with the Ministry of Natural Resources and Environment. The committee has been appointed with two Indigenous representatives.
2. Verification of land rights: Accelerate the verification of citizens’ land rights (both individual and collective) in accordance with Cabinet resolutions dated 11 May 1999 and 12 November 2024. The Office of the National Land Policy Committee (ONLPC) has been instructed to assign the Subcommittee on the Study and Amendment of the National Parks Act to carry out this task. In addition, the Ministry of Natural Resources and Environment has been asked to direct the Royal Forest Department, as mandated by the Cabinet resolution of 29 October 2024 on farmland, to urgently proceed with surveys of landholdings, some of which were done in collaboration with Indigenous Peoples but many of which were done solely by state agencies, which was problematic due to incorrect information being gathered.
3. Community Land Titles: Request that Deputy Prime Minister Suriya Juangroongruangkit, in his capacity overseeing the Community Land Title Office, expedite the signing of an order appointing qualified experts to the Coordination Committee for the Establishment of Community Land Titles, in accordance with the Prime Minister’s Office of Regulation on Community Land Titles B.E. 2553 (2010). This process is expected to be completed within seven days.
4. Nationality and legal status: Closely monitor and advance measures under the Cabinet resolution of 29 October 2024 to accelerate solutions to nationality and legal status issues affecting approximately 480,000 long-term migrants residing in Thailand. The Minister of Interior, Mr. Anutin Charnvirakul, has acknowledged this matter.
5. Forest and land-related legal cases: Assign the Independent Subcommittee on the Study and Formulation of Accelerated Measures to Improve State Land Boundary Demarcation (the “One Map” initiative), established under National Land Policy Committee Order No. 1/2568 (2025), to consider and resolve forest and land-related legal cases involving the Assembly of Forest-Dwelling Communities and the Northern Farmers’ Federation. This task has been delegated to Mr. Somkid Chuakhong, Deputy Secretary-General to the Prime Minister for Political Affairs. In parallel, coordination has been initiated with the Minister of Justice, Mr. Tawee Sodsong, to urgently draft a forest and land amnesty bill for citizens affected by state forest and land policies. Indigenous Peoples were consulted, and an Indigenous member of parliament is in the taskforce.
6. Implementation and reporting: Submit the outcomes of the negotiations to the Prime Minister, inform the Cabinet for acknowledgment, and instruct relevant agencies to urgently implement solutions in line with the agreed outcomes. These actions have been carried out as promised.

At the time, this was seen as a positive development; however, these demands were not pursued when the government changed from the Phuethai party to the Phumjaithai party in September 2025.

Continuing demands

Despite these developments, the demands of the Assembly of Forest-Dwelling Communities—particularly those related to the work of the subcommittee amending the two forest laws—lapsed with the end of the previous Pheu Thai Party-led government. The Assembly, together with the People’s Movement for a Just Society (P-Move), has since resumed protests, calling on the new government to continue and complete the reform process. To date, however, no clear outcomes have emerged.

Draft Amnesty Act for forestry and land cases

Policies and approaches to resource management that are centralized and exclude the participation of forest-dwellers, including Indigenous Peoples, have led to longstanding conflicts between the state and communities. Many villagers have been arrested and prosecuted for offenses such as forest encroachment or the collection of forest products, even though most of these activities form part of their subsistence livelihoods.^[5] According to data from a parliamentary ad hoc committee, more than 60,000 people have been affected by the “reclaiming forest land” policy, with over 1.2 million rai (192,000 ha.) of land seized, some 80% of which belonged to villagers.^[6]

As a result, civil society groups and Indigenous Peoples have proposed enacting an amnesty law for members and communities affected by these policies and laws.

In 2025, representatives from two political parties—the Prachachat Party and the People’s Party—jointly proposed the Draft Act on the Exemption from Liability for Persons Who Have Suffered Damage or Have Been Affected by State Policies on Forestry and Land, B.E. 2568 (2025). The objective of this bill is to restore justice to citizens prosecuted in forestry cases arising from the declaration of state forest areas overlapping with their farmland. The bill seeks to grant amnesty to villagers in three groups:

Group 1:
Those who occupied and utilized land after it was first declared a protected or reserved area under the law but who were granted temporary residence under the Cabinet Resolution of 30 June 1998.

Group 2:
Those affected by the “reclaiming forest land” policy—namely, individuals who occupied and utilized land after it was first declared a protected or reserved area under the law but before receiving protection under National Council for Peace and Order (NCPO) Order No. 66/2557 dated 17 June 2014. This order was aimed at protecting the poor from being affected by policies targeting large capital investors; however, officials failed to implement it fairly, resulting in many poor and marginalized people being charged and prosecuted en masse.

Group 3:
People who suffered damage or were affected by cases in which the state declared state land boundaries overlapping with people’s farmland even though the people had lived there previously, thereby turning them into law violators. This group also includes those seeking the restoration of rights and legal status for individuals who occupied and utilized land before it was first declared a protected or reserved area, so that they may enter the process of land verification and apply for land rights under existing laws or current state policies.^[7]

On 11 September 2025 (B.E. 2568), Parliament approved the principles of the draft bill and established an ad hoc committee to consider it.

The ad hoc committee held meetings and passed a resolution approving the bill on 11 December 2025; the bill was then ready for submission to Parliament for consideration and endorsement. This did not occur, however, because the government announced the dissolution of Parliament on 12 December 2025.

The bill is expected to be taken up and reconsidered once more after a further election has been held and a new government formed.

Passage of the Law on the Protection and Promotion of Ethnic Groups’ Rights

Given the structural and policy-based problems facing Indigenous Peoples—including land and resource insecurity and lack of legal status—the Council of Indigenous Peoples in Thailand has been calling for legislation to protect and promote Indigenous Peoples’ rights since 2010. This effort culminated on 18 September 2025^[8] when the government officially passed this law, marking a significant step forward in protecting and promoting the rights of ethnic groups, including Indigenous Peoples. It was, however, disappointing to the Indigenous Peoples’ movement in Thailand that Indigenous Peoples were not mentioned using this internationally recognized term.

Rationale for the Act

Ethnic groups possess distinct identities, accumulated cultures, languages, ways of life, traditional knowledge, and belief systems, as well as historical and cultural continuity with Thai society. It is therefore necessary to enact legal provisions to protect their rights to live in dignity in accordance with international human rights principles. This is consistent with Section 70 of the Constitution of the Kingdom of Thailand, which mandates that the state promote and protect ethnic groups’ rights to live peacefully according to their traditional cultures and ways of life, provided such practices do not conflict with public order, morality, national security, or public health.

The Protection and Promotion of Ethnic Groups’ Rights Act, B.E. 2568 (2025)— commonly referred to as the “Ethnic Groups Act”—was consequently enacted.

Key principles and provisions

The Act is based on three core principles:

1. Protection of cultural rights
2. Promotion of capacity and potential
3. Equality

It emphasizes five key components:

1. Principles for protecting the rights of ethnic groups
2. Mechanisms for the protection of rights and promotion of ethnic ways of life
3. Establishment of the National Ethnic Groups Council of Thailand
4. Development of an ethnic groups database for policymaking
5. Establishment of protected areas for ethnic ways of life

Sections 5 to 12 of the Act are particularly significant as they form the heart of the law. Notably, Section 9 guarantees ethnic groups’ rights to land, natural resources, and the environment as necessary for livelihoods and community public activities.

Implementation challenges

Translating these legal provisions into practice remains a major challenge. Beyond raising awareness among Indigenous communities and target groups, the government must issue sub-laws to operationalize the Act. According to the prescribed timeline, these implementing regulations and guidelines are expected to be completed by March 2026.

Kittisak Rattanakrajangsri is a Mien from the north of Thailand. He has worked with Indigenous communities and organizations since 1989. He is currently Executive Director of the Indigenous Peoples’ Foundation for Education and Environment (IPF) based in Chiang Mai, Thailand.

This article is part of the 40^th edition of The Indigenous World, a yearly overview produced by IWGIA that serves to document and report on the developments Indigenous Peoples have experienced. Find The Indigenous World 2026 in full here

Notes and references

^[1] Ten groups are sometimes referenced, with the Palaung also included in some official documents. The Department of Social Development and Welfare’s 2002 Directory of Ethnic Communities in 20 northern and western provinces also includes the Mlabri and Padong.

^[2] Ministry of Social Development and Human Security. “Master Plan for Ethnic Groups Development in Thailand 2015-2017.” Accessed 15 January 2023. https://readgur.com/doc/2075846/%E0%B9%81%E0%B8%9C%E0%B8%99%E0%B9%81%E0%B8%A1%E0%B9%88%E0%B8%9A%E0%B8%97-%E0%B8%81%E0%B8%B2%E0%B8%A3%E0%B8%9E%E0%B8%B1%E0%B8%92%E0%B8%99%E0%B8%B2%E0%B8%81%E0%B8%A5%E0%B8%B8%E0%B9%88%E0%B8%A1%E0%B8%8A%E0%B8%B2%E0%B8%95%E0%B8%B4%E0%B8%9E%E0%B8%B1%E0%B8%99%E0%B8%98%E0%B8%B8%E0%B9%8C%E0%B9%83%E0%B8%99%E0%B8%9B%E0%B8%A3%E0%B8%B0%E0%B9%80%E0%B8%97%E0%B8%A8%E0%B9%84%E0%B8%97%E0%B8%A2

^[3] Composed of Moken, Moklen and Urak-rawoy.

^[4] Green News. “The Cabinet accepts in principle the six demands regarding forestry and land protesters in Chiang Mai.” 1 April 2025. https://greennews.agency/?p=40662

^[5] iLaw. “’People who lived in the forest before it became a forest should not be considered criminals.’ Draft amnesty bill for those affected by land and forestry policies unveiled.” 4 February 2025. https://www.ilaw.or.th/articles/50320

^[6] The Active. “Checking differing opinions on the draft amnesty law for forestry and land cases.” 2 November 2025. https://theactive.thaipbs.or.th/news/law-rights-20251102

^[7] Ibid.

^[8] Royal Thai Government. “Law on the Protection and Promotion of Ethnic Groups’ Rights.” 18 September 2025. https://ratchakitcha.soc.go.th/documents/83911.pdf

Tags: Global governance