The Indigenous World 2026: Nepal
According to the Central Bureau of Statistics’ 2021 Census of Nepal, the total population of Indigenous Peoples in Nepal is 35.08%, or 29,164,578 individuals. However, Indigenous academics and movement leaders believe they are the majority. Sixty Indigenous Peoples in Nepal are formally recognized by the government, and 19 more were identified in the 2021 census but are yet to be formally recognized. All have been facing systematic discrimination, exclusion, and marginalization because of colonization and continued racism from the dominant Hindu patriarchy for centuries.
These systemic issues include land grabbing in various forms, criminalization of customary practices, militarization, involuntary eviction, and displacement due to development aggression using the Constitution, laws, policies, rules and regulations, directives, plans, and programs. These practices are formulated and implemented without ever obtaining the free, prior, and informed consent (FPIC) of Indigenous Peoples and are manifested in many ways – visible and invisible. Nepal’s Indigenous Peoples have serious concerns about the continued violation, interference, abuse, and non-compliance of international laws and human rights standards, including International Labour Organization (ILO) Convention No. 169, the International Convention on the Elimination of All Forms of Racial Discrimination (ICERD), the UN Declaration on the Rights of Indigenous Peoples (UNDRIP), and Convention on the Elimination of All Forms of Discrimination Against Women (CEDAW) General Recommendation No. 39 (2022), which Nepal has ratified or adopted. Further, Nepal has done nothing to implement the Committee on the Elimination of Racial Discrimination’s (CERD) early warning and recommendations, or those made by the CEDAW Committee.
This article is part of the 40th edition of The Indigenous World, a yearly overview produced by IWGIA that serves to document and report on the developments Indigenous Peoples have experienced. Find The Indigenous World 2026 in full here
From state doubling down on atrocities against Indigenous territories to their constant struggle for meaningful inclusion in policy, 2025 was a year marked by the unyielding resistance of Indigenous Peoples in Nepal defending their lands from state-backed projects. Indigenous communities faced brutal force, from gunfire in the hills of Mukkumlung to violent crackdowns in the settlements of Bojheni, as their sacred sites, homes, and ancestral lands were targeted for development. For Indigenous Peoples in Nepal, genuine peace has never existed within the formal state system. In 2025, they created it for themselves through collective care, art, and solidarity while defending their lands.
Continued land rights issues and resistance by Indigenous Peoples
The “No Cable Car” or “Save Mukkumlung” movement in 2025 was a profound struggle for peace in the face of escalating state-backed conflict, defined by judicial setbacks, violent repression, and systemic exclusion centred on defending the sacred Limbu (Yakthung) site of Mukkumlung against a government-backed cable car project. In January 2025, the Armed Police Force (APF) opened fire on protesters, critically injuring two. Yam Limbu, a farmer who was shot in the thigh, recalls hearing an officer say, “Throw this moron off the cliff and let him die. Who cares!”.[1] A short-lived ceasefire was agreed upon with defenders, resulting in a six-point agreement that quickly foundered as the government insisted on bureaucratic talks and refused the community's demand for political-level dialogue.[2]
A month later, in February, a police crackdown[3] involved beatings, arrests, and a climate of terror, with activist Sajeev Yongya describing how police entered hotels at night, pounding on doors taking people away.[4] The movement faced a legal setback in May[5] when Nepal’s Supreme Court lifted a stay order issued on 26 March[6] that temporarily halted construction, a move the community interpreted as judicial support for the project. The controversy was fuelled by a severely flawed Initial Environmental Examination (IEE) report, which critics argued exploited legal loopholes to avoid a full environmental impact assessment and vastly underreported the number of trees to be felled, as well as numbers of sacred and endangered species.[7] The struggle was further intensified by an atmosphere of fear and surveillance, with one frontline defender revealing a key tactic of suppression: “Many defenders' phones were constantly monitored and tapped making them unsafe to visit the area. There were instances where supporters of the cable car project would come to our hotels and threaten us.”[8] In a strategic effort, the “No Cable Car Group”[9] filed a formal complaint with the World Bank's accountability mechanism on 26 August 2025, arguing that the International Finance Corporation's early advisory support to the project had failed to uphold its own social and environmental safeguards.[10] Despite all attempts, the construction is still ongoing and the “No Cable Car Group” is preparing for another series of resistance actions in 2026.[11]
In early 2025, the Tamang community in Bojheni, Shankharapur, faced a brutal escalation of force as the Nepal Electricity Authority (NEA), backed by APF personnel, moved to construct the ADB-financed Tamakoshi-Kathmandu Transmission Line on their ancestral lands. The communities, who had long protested the project for threatening their homes, farmlands, and sacred sites, were met with severe repression. On 16 January 2025, APF personnel “severely beat” community members, including women and the elderly,[12], during a protest that led to the arrest of 18 people.[13] Six detainees were held for nine days and attempts were made to sign agreements to stop their resistance, effectively criminalizing their protest.[14] This created a situation of terror, with women and girls forced to flee their homes[15] and hide, often under cover of night.[16] Surya Bahadur Tamang, chair of Ward 3 in Shankharapur Municipality, confirms that the affected Ward Representatives collectively sent letters to relevant Ministries demanding the relocation of the substation construction but to no avail.[17] On 22 August, after their formal complaint to the Asia Development Bank's Office of the Special Project Facilitator had failed to resolve their core demand for relocation,[18] the community officially filed a complaint with ADB's Compliance Review Panel,[19] which later deemed the complaint inadmissible for review due to insufficient preliminary evidence of policy noncompliance by the ADB.[20] Sabnam Lama[21] highlights that older Tamang women and young girls are the frontline defenders of the Bojheni resistance, and their peace is never negotiated but imposed, leaving resistance to authority as their only recourse.[22]
In another case of infrastructure trampling Indigenous rights, the Tanahu Hydropower Project stands at the midpoint of its completion;[23] however, the central conflict still revolves around the failure to secure the Free, Prior, and Informed Consent (FPIC) of the Magar communities. The project was reportedly implemented without proper consultation, with community leader Til Bahadur Thapa Magar stating, “We were never consulted even if we wanted the project,” as they were forced to sell land at government-determined prices instead of receiving land-for-land compensation.[24] The situation remains unresolved, with new compensation demands emerging from residents whose homes are now at risk of submersion.[25]
As Jhumlabang village in Nepal’s far west became news for the “biggest iron deposit in Nepal”,[26] residents expressed concern and opposition to the mining project, highlighting a complete lack of consultation, fears of displacement, and the potential destruction of their livelihoods, cultural heritage and spiritual practices.[27] Ajay Budha Magar, executive director of the Jhumlabang Village Foundation, stated that the community was not even informed about the initial surveys, let alone asked for their FPIC.
From Gen-Z protest to Gen-Z Peoples’ Movement: Indigenous identity questioned yet again
The Gen-Z Peoples’ Movement[28] in Nepal was a youth-led protest that began in early September 2025 and transformed the political history of Nepal. It was triggered by the government's decision to ban 26 social media platforms,[29] which protesters saw as an attempt to silence dissent against widespread corruption, unemployment, and economic and political inequality, highlighted by the “Nepo Baby” trend referring to the corruption and luxurious lives of politician’s children.[30] Mobilized through social media, students and young people simultaneously gathered in different parts of the country for the Gen-Z Protest on 8 September.[31] The peaceful gatherings in Kathmandu escalated into deadly violence as security forces used disproportionate and indiscriminate lethal force against the protesters, with reports showing the use of 2,642 rounds of live ammunition[32] that killed at least 19[33] on the day and culminated in 76 deaths nationwide over two days,[34] during which security forces largely failed to protect people and property.[35]
These two days were followed by deepening chaos and profound uncertainty[36] as the government collapsed with the resignation of the Prime Minister, Home Minister, and many other officials, creating a leadership vacuum,[37] evaporating public trust, and leaving questions about the future unanswered. Supreme Court Chief Justice Sushila Karki was appointed Interim Prime Minister, becoming the first female prime minister and announcing the dissolution of the House of Representatives on 12 September and national elections on 8 March 2026.[38]
During this period of closed-door political negotiation,[39] Indigenous youth within the broader Gen-Z movement feared that Indigenous Peoples’ rights would be sidelined in the new state-making process, just as they had been by the old political establishment.[40] Amid this, the Indigenous Gen-Z Collective (IGC) arose, releasing their first press release demanding proper investigation and action for the state-perpetrated violence of 8-9 September and the inclusion of marginalized groups in decision making.[41] IGC representatives faced intimidation and accusations from non-Indigenous youth of dividing the country and diverting the focus by bringing inclusion into the discussion. They were constantly not informed of meetings, their voices were dismissed and their effort went largely unrecognized.[42]
Despite this, the leadership of Indigenous women in the IGC was visible in institutionalizing the Gen-Z movement,[43] playing a critical role in the drafting and negotiation of the Gen-Z Peoples’ Movement Agreement.[44] The IGC, as a part of the Gen-Z Movement Alliance,[45] also played a critical role in the peace-making process post-protest through multi-stakeholder dialogues,[46] coordination with the interim government and by bringing together Gen-Z groups for the Agreement.
The Gen-Z Peoples’ Movement emphasized the historical, structural, and systemic exclusion of Indigenous individuals, which was again evidenced during the formation of the interim government when a young Indigenous woman, Tashi Lhazom, who had been recommended for a ministerial position, faced a slanderous campaign and an orchestrated media trial that attacked her fundamental existence as a Nepali citizen. Every aspect of her identity, her appearance, her accent, her regional background, was scrutinized and deemed “not Nepali enough”. She was subjected to false claims about her citizenship and baselessly suspected of holding foreign allegiances.[47] To counter this, IGC condemned the attack[48] and reached out to Indigenous Peoples’ organizations,[49] activists, news outlets, the Indigenous Nationalities Commission (INC), National Human Rights Commission (NHRC),[50] and others to raise their voices against this attack.
Historic Supreme Court directive: nationwide implementation of treaties for Indigenous Peoples' rights
On 5 May 2025, in a significant move for Nepal’s Indigenous Peoples, the Supreme Court of Nepal published a directive[51] requiring all levels of government: federal, provincial, and local, to create laws, policies, and programmes that align with International Labour Organization (ILO) Convention No. 169 and the UN Declaration on the Rights of Indigenous Peoples (UNDRIP).[52] This landmark decision was the result of a persistent legal challenge by a group of lawyers from the Lawyers’ Association for Human Rights of Nepalese Indigenous Peoples (LAHURNIP). This marks an important win for the Indigenous movement in Nepal, which is often faced by immense challenges in advocating for policy change due to a lack of national laws and policies on Indigenous Peoples.
CEDAW Concluding Observations to National Roadmap
The 90th CEDAW Session took place from 3-21 February. The National Indigenous Women’s Federation (NIWF) and National Indigenous Disabled Women Association (NIDWAN) provided oral interventions at the Informal public meetings, with NGOs representing the Indigenous Women Consortium and Diverse Women with Disabilities consortium respectively. On 28 February, CEDAW issued the Concluding Observations on Nepal’s 7th Periodic report, with 27 mentions of Indigenous Women and, specifically, recommendation 47 (a), which reiterates the recommendation from its 2018 Concluding Observations to “amend the constitution to explicitly recognize the rights of Indigenous women, including their right to self-determination, in line with the UNDRIP”. A CEDAW implementation roadmap is underway at the Ministry of Women, Children and Senior Citizens. Integration of General Recommendation No. 39 and the Concluding Observations will be a central focus for Indigenous Peoples.
Climate and biodiversity: policy wins and existing threats
2025 marked an important year for Climate and Biodiversity as Nepal finalized its Nationally Determined Contributions (NDC) 3.0 and National Biodiversity Strategy and Action Plan (NBSAP). However, preparation of both came with challenges for the inclusion of Indigenous Peoples’ demands. Although NIWForum and the Nepal Federation of Indigenous Nationalities (NEFIN) were part of the NBSAP drafting steering committee,[53] NEFIN representatives highlighted the technical committee's reluctance to include Indigenous Traditional Territories, citing a lack of evidence and national laws.[54] This exclusion is compounded by the systematic use of the umbrella term “Indigenous Peoples and Local Communities” (IPLC) in NBSAP, which dilutes the specific legal rights of Indigenous Peoples under UNDRIP and erases the distinct identity of Nepal's 61 state-recognized Indigenous Nationalities, effectively conflating them with local communities.[55]
The preparations for NDC 3.0 marked a significant regression, as Indigenous Peoples as a constituency was entirely excluded from the initial consultations. The WE-Women from Indigenous Nationalities (WE-WIN) representative shared that no Indigenous Peoples had been invited to official technical workshops, forcing them to create their own space through strategic collaboration with UNESCO for inclusion.[56] The WE-WIN representative emphasized that only after this intervention were Indigenous Peoples Organizations officially included in the process. Despite subsequent consultations and multiple submissions, many substantial recommendations were omitted from the final draft.[57] However, recognition of the customary institutions of Indigenous Peoples for the first time marks an important win.[58]
Nepal also hosted the first “Sagarmatha Saambad”, a multi-stakeholder dialogue forum on Mountains and Climate Change from 16-18 May 2025,[59] which was also marked by the sheer absence of Indigenous Peoples and their organization.
Advances towards customary governance and autonomous regions
On 23 January 2025, Sandakpur Rural Municipality in Ilam adopted a landmark law formally recognizing the Thebe Limbu Indigenous Peoples' customary governance over their ancestral Kipat forests, biodiversity, land, and sacred sites. The law, officially published on 26 August 2025, legally affirms their stewardship, which, for generations, has been guided by their spiritual philosophy, Mundhum.[60] The Indigenous Nationalities Commission held its annual Indigenous Knowledge Conference on 14-15 December, focusing on Special, Protected, or Autonomous Areas. The event was aimed at building technical and ideological support for implementing Article 56(5) of Nepal's Constitution.[61] Chief Guest, Minister Rameshwor Prasad Khanal, committed to enacting relevant legislation and requested a draft from the commission.[62] In a parallel development, CIPRED organized the National Conference on Customary Governance in Nepal on 22-23 December, which concluded with a 10-point declaration calling for the recognition and development of customary governance systems.[63]
2025 Human Rights and Business Award
LAHURNIP was named the recipient of the prestigious 2025 Human Rights and Business Award. This award, announced at the UN Forum on Business and Human Rights in Geneva, is significant international recognition of LAHURNIP's three decades of legal and advocacy work in Nepal. It underscores the critical role of Indigenous-led organizations in holding corporations, governments, and international financiers accountable to human rights standards, particularly the right to FPIC.[64] They also received the Dayaram Pariyar Memorial Award-2025 on Human Rights Day from the NHRC.[65]
Indigenous art: resistance, collective care and solidarity
Indigenous art and artists were vital in documenting and amplifying the struggles of Indigenous Peoples throughout the year. “Save Mukkumlung” gained significant public traction through the play “Mukkumlung: Cho:t-lung of Yakthung”, which ran from 17 January to 9 February, exploring Yakthung Limbu worldviews, customs, and spiritual connection to the mountain threatened by a cable car.[66] Yakthung Cho (Yakthung Art Society)[67] has been instrumental in shaping the movement, creating artistic posters,[68] organizing symbolic demonstrations[69] and exhibitions[70] and spreading critical information, while also extending artistic support to the communities in Bojheni.[71] Similarly, Artree Nepal,[72] a group of Indigenous artists, has also been a key contributor to artistic organizing.
To spotlight the Bojheni struggle, Focus for Indigenous Girls (FIG) organized a photo exhibition entitled “Yula sa Saparala Hang: We Belong to the Land and Soil” showcasing images and narratives of frontline defenders.[73] At the opening of the exhibition, Rajman Tamang, a representative of Bojheni, shared that such support fuels the community to persist and resist. FIG also held a zine-making workshop using art and storytelling to explore personal and collective ties to land and memory. In Lalitpur, artist Sara Tara Koinch painted a public mural honouring five Indigenous Women Defenders for their unwavering resistance, literally inking their struggle onto the city's wall.[74]
Indigenous Peoples’ struggle for sovereignty in 2025 paved a path from the forests and streets to the courts and art galleries, proving that peace is built by communities, not granted by the state.
Pema Wangmo Lama, a Mugum Indigenous Youth, is an Indigenous climate activist and feminist. She is the Founder and Vice-Chair of WE-Women from Indigenous Nationalities (WE-WIN) and a Working Group Member of the International Indigenous Youth Forum on Climate Change (IIYFCC). Her work focuses on the nexus of climate, gender, and Indigenous Peoples rights through capacity and leadership building, research and policy advocacy at both local and international levels, especially in UN mechanisms such as CEDAW and UNFCCC, also speaking at the opening plenary at COP28. She also led Indigenous Peoples' Engagement in the NDC 3.0 preparation in Nepal and the preparation of the CEDAW Shadow Report for Indigenous Women for the 89th CEDAW pre-sessional working group.
This article is part of the 40th edition of The Indigenous World, a yearly overview produced by IWGIA that serves to document and report on the developments Indigenous Peoples have experienced. Find The Indigenous World 2026 in full here
Notes and references
[1] Ninglekhu, S. (25 March 2025). A sacred mountain, a cable car and Nepal's Indigenous resistance to state violence. The Wire. https://thewire.in/south-asia/a-sacred-mountain-a-cable-car-and-nepals-indigenous-resistance-to-state-violence
[2] Poudel, P. (09 February 2025). Government, Pathibhara protesters at odds over talks team formation. The Kathmandu Post. https://kathmandupost.com/national/2025/02/09/government-pathibhara-protesters-at-odds-over-talks-team-formation
[3] Yakthungcho. [@yakthungcho] (26 February 2025). Video showing atrocities from Police force [Video]. Instagram. https://www.instagram.com/p/DGgbddbqB-w/, https://www.instagram.com/p/DGZfuxzqw71/
[4] Ninglekhu, S. (25 March 2025). A sacred mountain, a cable car and Nepal's Indigenous resistance to state violence. The Wire. https://thewire.in/south-asia/a-sacred-mountain-a-cable-car-and-nepals-indigenous-resistance-to-state-violence
[5] Kafle, M. (27 May 2025). In Nepal, confrontation looms over controversial cable car project as court lifts stay order. Mongabay. https://news.mongabay.com/2025/05/in-nepal-confrontation-looms-over-controversial-cable-car-project-as-court-lifts-stay-order/
[6] Nepal Khabar. (25 May 2025). Police opened fire, two seriously injured in Pathibhara cable car protest. https://en.nepalkhabar.com/news/detail/13264/
[7] Khatry, R. (05 May 2025). Cable car project in Nepal under fire for flawed environmental review. Mongabay. https://news.mongabay.com/2025/05/cable-car-project-in-nepal-under-fire-for-flawed-environmental-review/
[8] Testimony shared at an event on 15 Dec by one of the frontline defenders from the No Cable Car Group
[9] Coalition of the struggle committee and Indigenous Peoples Organizations.
[10] Lawyers’ Association for Human Rights of Nepalese Indigenous Peoples. (26 August 2025). Complaint to the Office of the Compliance Advisor Ombudsman regarding IFC advisory project number 607394, IME Cable Car, Nepal. https://www.lahurnip.org/uploads/project/file/cao-complaint-ifc-pathivara-cable-car-nepal-26-august-2025-compressed.pdf
[11] A press Conference was announced on 30 December 2025.
[12] Lawyers’ Association for Human Rights of Nepalese Indigenous Peoples. (22 August 2025). Indigenous Tamangs file complaint with ADB’s Compliance Review Panel [Press release]. Community Empowerment and Social Justice Network. https://cemsoj.net/2025/08/22/indigenous-tamangs-and-local-communities-affected-by-tamakoshi-kathmandu-transmission-line-file-complaint-to-adbs-compliance-review-panel/
[13] Indigenous Nationalities Commission. (23 January 2025). Press release https://www.facebook.com/photo/?fbid=122196889700187569&set=a.122112010304187569
[14] Rai, D. M. (Yamphu). (01 May 2025). The unseen cost of a ‘just transition’: Indigenous rights at risk in Nepal’s renewable energy projects. Debates Indígenas. https://debatesindigenas.org/en/2025/05/01/the-unseen-cost-of-a-just-transition-indigenous-rights-at-risk-in-nepals-renewable-energy-projects/
[15] Nigarani Online Tv. (25 January 2025). शंखरापुर भोजनीमा सिंगो गाउँनै आतंकित ढोका थुनेर भागाभाग ९ बेपत्ता exclusive kathmandu nigarani tv [Video]. YouTube https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=Qo8mAiVt8Co
[16] Nigarani Online Tv. (23 January 2025). प्रहरीबाट ज्यान जोगाउन जंगल पसेकी कल्पना तामाङ पहिलो पटक मिडियामा exclusives bojani kanda [Video]. YouTube. https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=C6i_QNO2B9A
[17] VIDiGOTH. (26 December 2024). Lapsiphedi | MCC Controversy | हामी जन्मभूमि छोड्न तयार छैनौँ — बोझेनीका जनता [Video]. YouTube. https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=nuJt1qDzmbw
[18] Asian Development Bank. (2025). Office of the Special Project Facilitator final report for case number SPF-2025-08-02-0199. https://www.adb.org/sites/default/files/Complaint/1046896/spf-2025-08-02-0199-final-report.pdf
[19]Asian Development Bank. (22 August 2025). Request for Compliance Review of the Power Transmission and Distribution Efficiency Enhancement Project. https://www.adb.org/sites/default/files/Complaint/1079786/%5B2025-15%5D%20Redacted%2022%20Aug%20Complaint%20Letter.pdf
[20] Asian Development Bank, Compliance Review Panel. (2025). Nepal electricity transmission expansion and supply improvement project: Ineligibility and closure decision. https://www.adb.org/sites/default/files/Complaint/1079786/Nepal%20Electricity%20Transmission-ER-Final-English.pdf
[21] President of Focus for Indigenous Girls (FIG): FIG have been documenting the events in Bhojhni throughout 2025.
23 Testimony collected from in-person interview on 5 January 2026.
[23] Karki, S. (09 July 2025). Tanahu Hydropower stalled over forest compensation fund. The Annapurna Express. https://theannapurnaexpress.com/story/55813/
[24] Shrestha, R. (22 August 2025). Development banks under fire for backing disputed Nepal hydropower project. Mongabay. https://news.mongabay.com/2025/08/development-banks-under-fire-for-backing-disputed-nepal-hydropower-project/
[25] REPUBLICA. (20 December 2025). Locals affected by Tanahu hydropower project demand Compensation. https://myrepublica.nagariknetwork.com/news/locals-affected-by-tanahu-hydropower-project-demand-compensation-94-28.html
[26] KC, M. (07 May 2024). Nepal plans its ‘biggest’ iron dig. The Kathmandu Post. https://kathmandupost.com/money/2024/05/07/nepal-plans-its-biggest-iron-dig
[27] Shrestha, R. (17 October 2025). In Nepal’s hills, a fight brews over the country’s biggest iron deposit. Mongabay. https://news.mongabay.com/2025/10/in-nepals-hills-a-fight-brews-over-the-countrys-biggest-iron-deposit/
[28] Nepal Government. (2025). Gen-Z Peoples Movement Agreement (Rajpatra Notice). http://rajpatra.dop.gov.np/welcome/book?ref=26156
[29] Shrestha, S. (04 September 2025). Nepal bans Facebook and other major social media platforms over non-compliance. The Kathmandu Post. https://kathmandupost.com/national/2025/09/04/nepal-bans-facebook-and-other-major-social-media-platforms-over-non-compliance
[30] TechPana. (14 Juen 2025). Nepo Baby trend goes viral in Nepal: TikTok and Reddit users expose lavish lives of politician children. https://www.techpana.com/2025/152938/nepo-baby-trend-goes-viral-in-nepal-tiktok-and-reddit-user-expose-lavish-lives-of-politician-children
[31] National Bureau. (09 September 2025). Gen-Z protests against corruption and social media ban spread across country. The Kathmandu Post. https://kathmandupost.com/national/2025/09/09/gen-z-protests-against-corruption-and-social-media-ban-spread-across-country
[32] Pokharel, G. (26 September 2025). 2,642 rounds of live ammunition fired over two days of Gen Z protests: Police. The Kathmandu Post. https://kathmandupost.com/national/2025/09/26/police-records-reveal-excessive-force-in-gen-z-crackdown#:~:text=Records%20show%20most%20bullets%20were,Kathmandu
[33] The Kathmandu Post. (08 September 2025). 19 dead in Gen-Z protests across Nepal. https://kathmandupost.com/national/2025/09/08/19-dead-in-gen-z-protests-across-nepal
[34] Harvard T.H. Chan School of Public Health. (17 November 2025). The 2025 Gen Z Uprising in Nepal: A three-part analysis. Atrocity Prevention Lab. https://hsph.harvard.edu/atrocity-prevention-lab/news/the-2025-gen-z-uprising-in-nepal-a-three-part-analysis/
[35] Human Rights Watch. (19 November 2025). Nepal: Unlawful use of force during ‘Gen Z’ protest. https://www.hrw.org/news/2025/11/19/nepal-unlawful-use-of-force-during-gen-z-protest
[36] Agencies. (12 September 2025). Nepal's civil society claims 'conspiracy' to restore monarchy 'under military mediation'. Millennium Post. https://www.millenniumpost.in/world/nepals-civil-society-claims-conspiracy-to-restore-monarchy-under-military-mediation-627021
[37] Oakes, Nicholas. (10 September 2025). Generation Z Forces Leadership Change, Nepal Faces Political Power Vacuum. Modern Diplomacy. https://moderndiplomacy.eu/2025/09/10/generation-z-forces-leadership-change-nepal-faces-political-power-vacuum/
[38] The Himalayan Times. (12 September 2025). Sushila Karki takes oath as interim prime minister. https://thehimalayantimes.com/nepal/sushila-karki-takes-oath-as-interim-prime-minister
[39] Himal Khabar. (19 September 2025). हाम्रो चाबी कसको हातमा छ, हामीले नै भेउ पाइरहेका छैनौं – जेन–जी अभियन्ताहरु [Video]. YouTube. https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=KithfVYTKXI
[40] Indigenous Television. (12 September 2025). जेन–जी आन्दोलन : अहिलेको अवस्था र भविष्यको बाटो [Video]. YouTube. https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=DRMSCbOl2hw
[41] Indigenous Gen-Z Collective [@indigenousgenz.np]. (13 September 2025). Indigenous Greetings! On behalf of the Indigenous Gen-Z Collective of Nepal, we are sharing with you our first and latest press release [Photograph]. Instagram. https://www.instagram.com/p/DOiKThMEvj4/?utm_source=ig_web_copy_link&igsh=MzRlODBiNWFlZA==
[42] Rhythm Online TV. (13 October 2025). आदिबासीको कुरा नउठाउने गुरुङ, पुन वा घिसिङलाई समावेशिता वा प्रतिनिधित्व मान्न सकिन्न [Video]. YouTube. https://youtu.be/UezO7UC_nt4?si=ndLLIP2s-TAjUXod&t=2637
[43] Lama, Pema. W.,Lama, Sabnam., Lawati, Samana. & Rai, Shangken. 2025. Accounts of Indigenous Girls: The Gen-Z Peoples Movement of Nepal.
[44] Shrestha, U. (12 December 2025). 'श्रीमान' मन्त्रीलाई जेनजी वकिलले 'कन्भिन्स' गरेपछि टुंगो लागेको थियो सम्झौता. Setopati
https://www.setopati.com/politics/376529?fbclid=IwY2xjawPdM0xleHRuA2FlbQIxMABicmlkETFUTE4yU2gzeURpQ215bU5Jc3J0YwZhcHBfaWQQMjIyMDM5MTc4ODIwMDg5MgABHncdXCaqSBQCXPjMU36-8XJOlD3Hg9t814_6zE7twtpvRIBAa4HFptoYZ20c_aem_vnsp2EPWAsOD53M2Hz200w
[45] Gen Z Movement Alliance [@genzmovementalliance]. (2025). Posts related to the Gen-Z Peoples Movement [Instagram profile]. https://www.instagram.com/genzmovementalliance/
[46] Gen Z Movement Alliance [@genzmovementalliance]. (26 October 2025). This wasn't the first discussion and it won't be the last [Photograph]. Instagram. https://www.instagram.com/p/DQRVspEkv3w/?utm_source=ig_web_copy_link
[47] Shakya, A. (16 October 2025). What makes a Nepali? Nepali Times. https://nepalitimes.com/editorial/what-makes-a-nepali
[48] Indigenous Gen-Z Collective [@indigenousgenz.np]. (11 October 2025). PRESS RELEASE: Unwavering Recognition of Indigenous Peoples and Women’s Constitutional and Political Rights and Rightful Claims [Photograph]. Instagram. https://www.instagram.com/p/DPqYzxBEsJS/?utm_source=ig_web_copy_link&igsh=MzRlODBiNWFlZA==
[49] Indigenous Gen-Z Collective [@indigenousgenz.np]. (12 October 2025). PRESS RELEASE: NEPAL FEDERATION OF INDIGENOUS NATIONALITIES [Photograph]. Instagram. https://www.instagram.com/p/DPs7o9Lkny3/?utm_source=ig_web_copy_link&igsh=MzRlODBiNWFlZA==
[50] Indigenous Gen-Z Collective [@indigenousgenz.np]. (13 October 2025). By 14 Himalayan Indigenous communities across Nepal [Photograph]. Instagram. https://www.instagram.com/p/DPwkV12jMvN/?utm_source=ig_web_copy_link&igsh=MzRlODBiNWFlZA==
[51] Supreme Court of Nepal. (05 May 2025). Writ No. 076-WO-0803. [Court directive]. https://supremecourt.gov.np/cp/assets/uploads/supreme_173725.doc
[52] Sunuwar, Dev, S. (16 Juen 2025). Historic victory: Nepal's Supreme Court mandates nationwide implementation of treaties for Indigenous Peoples. Cultural Survival. https://www.culturalsurvival.org/news/historic-victory-nepals-supreme-court-mandates-nationwide-implementation-treaties-indigenous
[53] National Indigenous Women Forum – NIWF. (15 June 2025). National Indigenous Women Forum (NIWF), in collaboration with Nepal Federation of Indigenous Nationalities (NEFIN) and 20 other Indigenous Peoples' organizations, submitted a letter of concern [Photograph]. Facebook. https://www.facebook.com/share/p/1E8gTs7spF/
[54] Shared in an event ‘NBSAP Consultation Event’ organized by National Foundation for the Development of Indigenous Nationalities (NFDIN) on 26 June 2025
[55] Indigenous Peoples and Local Communities are defined as “ethnic groups and communities who are the original inhabitants of a given region. They are usually described as Indigenous when they maintain traditions or other aspects of an early culture that is associated with the area.” NBSAP Draft Document 2025-2030: https://mofe.gov.np/content/257/nbsap-vision-document--2025-2030--notice-for-the/
[56] WE-WIN Nepal [@wewin.nepal]. (25 February 2025). WE-WIN and @unescokathmandu organized a consultative workshop on 21 January 2025 [Photograph]. Instagram. https://www.instagram.com/p/DGd85VQTw5A/?utm_source=ig_web_copy_link&igsh=MzRlODBiNWFlZA==
[57] Youth Action for sustainable and Eco Nepal. (15 November 2025). The Climate Talk Ep.1 | जलवायुका कुराहरु with Pema Wangmo Lama | Dreaming of a Sustainable Nepal [Video]. YouTube
https://youtu.be/Dx-YARNraIQ?si=DfKg64CVirxNZXAH&t=2206
[58] Ministry of Forests and Environment, Government of Nepal. (2025). Nationally Determined Contribution (NDC) 3.0. https://mofe.gov.np/content/251/national-scheduled-contribution--ndionally-detrimined-contribution-ndc-3-0-/
[59] Sagarmatha Sambad. (2025). Sagarmatha Sambad: Multi-stakeholder dialogue forum on mountains and climate change. https://sagarmathasambaad.org
[60] Lawyers' Association for Human Rights of Nepalese Indigenous Peoples (LAHURNIP). (26 August 2025). Historic Move: Sandakpur Rural Municipality Formalizes Thebe Limbu Indigenous Forest Governance. https://www.lahurnip.org/news/160
[61] Nepal Federation of Indigenous Nationalities. (23 January 2025). Notice regarding the Indigenous Knowledge Conference 2025 [Press release]. https://inc.gov.np/content/52/indigenous-knowledge-conference-2025--indigenous-knowledge-conference-2025--standards/
[62] Indigenous Television. (15 December 2025). विशेष, संरक्षित र स्वायत्त क्षेत्र निर्धारण गर्न सरकारले काम थाल्ने अर्थ मन्त्री खनालको आश्वासन [Video]. YouTube. https://youtu.be/16zyJq3-JHE?si=iw43uPXsj3LDc2dN&t=148
[63] Sherpa, D. (23 December 2025). प्रथाजन्य सुशासनलाई कानुनी मान्यता दिनु पर्ने लगायतका विषयमा घोषणापत्र जारी गर्दे राष्ट्रिय सम्मेलन सम्पन्न. Indigenous Voice. https://indigenousvoice.com/news/1245?fbclid=IwdGRjcAPIXDdleHRuA2FlbQIxMQBzcnRjBmFwcF9pZAo2NjI4NTY4Mzc5AAEeedUMGRunCgzEbMqPPA33GELdI3ub-pEd4wCilxIwWkNl5GuglMRkYJy-CdU_aem_zHpv2EljOpaYBB1CrbJ1Yg
[64] Human Rights and Business Award Foundation. (24 November 2025). LAHURNIP named 2025 recipient of Human Rights and Business Award [News release]. https://www.humanrightsandbusinessaward.org/award-recipient/lahurnip/?fbclid=IwY2xjawPMDWtleHRuA2FlbQIxMABicmlkETFPVkRBRU5wSXhKM0xldm5Rc3J0YwZhcHBfaWQQMjIyMDM5MTc4ODIwMDg5MgABHkEI1pNcKdAOV1qDMHQndw3Xcwqt2PaHRyJRQlNIf1lAabIpJus5H9x8v2vF_aem_ShdhUOgxvzDE8fZdlkjlTQ
[65] Nepal News. (02 December 2025). NHRC Announces recipients of Human Rights Award, Prize https://english.nepalnews.com/s/society/nhrc-announces-recipients-of-human-rights-award-prize/
[66] Maharjan, T. (31 January 2025). A Theatrical Post. The Kathmandu Posthttps://kathmandupost.com/theater/2025/01/31/a-theatrical-protest
[67] Yakthung Cho [@yakthungcho]. (2025). Posts related to the Save Mukkumlung movement [Instagram profile]. https://www.instagram.com/yakthungcho/
[68] Yakthung Cho [@yakthungcho]. (15 December 2024). [Artistic poster for Save Mukkumlung movement] [Photograph]. Instagram. https://www.instagram.com/p/DDmWdoAKU9o/?utm_source=ig_web_copy_link&igsh=MzRlODBiNWFlZA==
[69] Yakthung Cho [@yakthungcho]. (27 September 2024). [Image related to Save Mukkumlung movement] [Photograph]. Instagram. https://www.instagram.com/p/DAbUIm2q1ei/?img_index=2
[70] Ulaanbaatar Biennale [@ulaanbaatarbiennale]. (12 July 2025). Main Exhibition: Artwork Series - Mukkumlung [Photograph]. Instagram. https://www.instagram.com/p/DMAN7IuS4Nr/?utm_source=ig_web_copy_link&igsh=MzRlODBiNWFlZA==
[71] Yakthung Cho [@yakthungcho]. (19 January 2025). Yesterday's (19 Jan 2025) protest in Bojheni, Tamsaling (Tamang Nation) against state terror and violence [Photograph]. Instagram. https://www.instagram.com/p/DE_UDMbyxEI/?utm_source=ig_web_copy_link&igsh=MzRlODBiNWFlZA==
[72] Artree Nepal [@artreenepal]. (2025). Posts providing artistic support to Indigenous movements [Instagram profile]. https://www.instagram.com/artreenepal/
[73] Post Report. (30 August 2025). Exhibit on Indigenous resistance and land rights. The Kathmandu Post. https://kathmandupost.com/art-culture/2025/08/30/exhibit-on-indigenous-resistance-and-land-rights
[74] Biruwa [@biruwa.nepal]. (26 September 2025). We did not know resilience could be painted [Photograph]. Instagram. https://www.instagram.com/p/DPEfN6Lkw5I/?img_index=1
Tags: Global governance
