The Indigenous World 2026: China

Written on 22 April 2026. Posted in China

The People’s Republic of China (PRC or China) officially proclaims itself to be a unified country with a diverse ethnic make-up and all nationalities equal in the Constitution. Besides the Han Chinese majority, the government recognizes 55 minority nationalities within its borders. According to the latest national census in 2020,^[1] the combined minority nationalities’ population stands at 125,467,390 or 8.89% of the country's total population. The “unidentified ethnic groups” in China are included in the “minority nationalities” population, numbering 836,488 persons. Minority nationalities are culturally distinctive and socially marginalized in the Chinese context.

The Law of the People’s Republic of China on Regional National Autonomy is a basic law on the governance of minority nationalities in China. It includes establishing autonomous areas for nationalities, setting up their own local governance and giving them the right to practise their own language and culture. These regional national autonomous areas make up approximately 64% of China’s total territory and include, among others, the vast territories of Tibet Autonomous Region, Inner Mongolia Autonomous Region and Xinjiang Uyghur Autonomous Region.

The Chinese government does not recognize the existence of Indigenous Peoples in the PRC despite voting in favour of the UN Declaration on the Rights of Indigenous Peoples (UNDRIP).

This article is part of the 40^th edition of The Indigenous World, a yearly overview produced by IWGIA that serves to document and report on the developments Indigenous Peoples have experienced. Find The Indigenous World 2026 in full here

Changes in legislation affecting Indigenous Peoples

There are three laws that were adopted or revised at the national level in 2025 affecting Indigenous Peoples’ access to natural resources, language use, and the maintenance of group and cultural identities.

National Park Law

On 12 September, the draft National Park Law (see The Indigenous World 2025) was adopted by the Standing Committee of the National People's Congress and this took effect on 1 January 2026.^[2]

The concept of yuanyoujumin (原有居民 in Chinese, tentative translation in English: original residents or native residents) used in the law is different from tuzhurenmin (土著人民 in the UN documents) and yuanzhuminzu (原住民族 in Taiwanese official documents) for Indigenous Peoples. While the law grants original residents (yuanyoujumin) – some of whom may meet the characteristics of Indigenous Peoples – certain rights to continue their traditional livelihoods within the parks, and could therefore be viewed as a small step towards legal recognition of Indigenous communities’ rights to maintain their way of life, it remains inconsistent with international standards on Indigenous Peoples’ rights, such as those set out in the UNDRIP. There is no recognition of the FPIC rule when resettling original residents based on the national parks’ management needs (Article 29).

Revision of the Law on the Standard Spoken and Written Chinese Language

The revised law was adopted on 27 December 2025 and came into force on 1 January 2026. This is the first revision of the law since it took effect in 2001, which expanded its contents from four chapters and 28 articles to five chapters and 32 articles. This revision further marginalizes Indigenous languages as it legislates the use of the national common language and script throughout the country, that its use should be to create a sense of community for the Chinese nation, and that it should be used to “cultivate and promote” Chinese culture.^[3]

By strengthening the promotion of Putonghua (Mandarin) and standardized Chinese characters in China, more than 100 Indigenous or minority languages have been marginalized in their use and development, contrary to the freedom stipulated in the Chinese Constitution. The trend to promote the use of the national common language and limiting the learning of Indigenous or minority languages has been observed for the past two decades. And, reinforcing this trend, there is no information on any Indigenous or endangered language communities in China that are participating in the programs of the International Decade of Indigenous Languages (IDIL 2022-2032).

Draft Law on the Promotion of Ethnic Unity and Progress

In 2025, the draft law underwent two revisions by the Standing Committee of the National People's Congress (NPC), in September and December.^[4]

The formulation of the law is stated to be guided by Xi Jinping Thought on Socialism with Chinese Characteristics for a New Era on strengthening and improving ethnic work as well as implementing the decisions of the 20^th CPC National Congress and the Second and Third Plenary Sessions of the 20^th CPC Central Committee. The draft is said to be based on the “historic achievements and successful experiences in ethnic work since the 18^th CPC National Congress”, with the idea “to promote the high-quality development of the cause of ethnic unity and progress by forging a strong sense of community for the Chinese nation as the main thread.”^[5]

The draft signals an ideological shift from endorsement of the regional national (ethnic) autonomy model towards a more unitarian approach to ethnic policy.

Human rights NGOs commented that the proposed law would provide a broad legal framework to justify existing repression and force assimilation of minority populations throughout the country and abroad. Once passed, the law could be used to facilitate an intensifying of ideological controls, to target ethnic and religious minorities, including by erasing minority language rights, and even to foster Chinese authorities’ control beyond China’s borders.^[6]

In addition to the national-level legislation, there are several pieces of legislation in the same field at the subnational level.^[7]

Major national/local events relevant to Indigenous Peoples

The Ascending Dragon fireworks display

On 19 September 2025, at approximately 5,500 metres (18,000 feet) above sea level in Gyantse County, Shigatse in the Tibet Autonomous Region, a fireworks display entitled Ascending Dragon took place at the foot of the Qionggangri (Qiongmu Gangri) mountain.

The show was a marketing collaboration between the outdoor brand Arc’teryx and renowned Chinese pyrotechnics artist, Cai Guo-Qiang. Despite claims of using biodegradable materials, debris, including plastic packaging and unburned gunpowder, was reportedly found on the fragile alpine tundra.^[8] The noise and light startled local wildlife and required the temporary relocation of livestock and herdsmen. This event triggered significant controversy regarding environmental protection and cultural rights. Critics accused the organizers of the commercial brand and the artists of “cultural ignorance” for using a Tibetan sacred site for the show and for violating the “leave no trace” principle central to outdoor culture. Arc’teryx, founded in Canada and acquired by a consortium led by Chinese sports apparel giant Anta Sports, issued an apology on 22 September.^[9]

As a result, some local officials were sacked and organizers apologized and pledged to be more “humble and respectful of nature”. However, this event reveals a collective lack of awareness among officials, companies, and artists of the rights of minority or Indigenous communities and environmental protection.

Yarlung Tsangpo downstream hydropower project

The groundbreaking ceremony for the construction of the mammoth hydroelectric project on the lower reaches of the Yarlung Tsangpo River at the eastern rim of the Tibetan Plateau took place on 19 July 2025.

To this day, no information has been made available to the public on the project's environmental impact assessment (EIA) or the resettlement plan for the affected communities. The project is expected to have a major impact on the lives and livelihoods of Indigenous communities, especially the Monpa, Lhoba and Mishmi in China, and many tribal communities such as the Adi in India. The construction, taking place in the controversial border area, has added complexity to the region’s geopolitics and water disputes. India, angered by China’s plans, is planning to build a “retaliatory dam” – the Upper Siang Multipurpose Storage Project, with a potential to submerge over 300 villages, including those inhabited by Indigenous Adi people, leading to loss of ancestral lands and disruption of traditional ways of life.^[10]

Important input/outcomes from international processes

Since China rejects the optional protocols to treaty bodies and other procedures for individual complaints at the UN, the special procedures play an essential role in drawing attention to cases of violations of human rights conventions in the country.

In 2025, UN experts were in communication with the Chinese government on a number of cases relating to Uyghurs and Tibetans and other Indigenous Peoples. These cases concern environmental and human rights defenders, victims of arbitrary detention, enforced or involuntary disappearances, in violation of their rights concerning fundamental freedoms of religion and belief, language use, and cultural expression.

The five cases concerning Uyghurs, mainly in the Xinjiang Uyghur Autonomous Region, include the alleged arbitrary arrest and detention of Mr. Ekpar Asat,^[11] Mr. Mulizati Tayier,^[12] artist Yaxia'er Xiaohelaiti,^[13] and Mr. Nuermaimaiti Maiwulani,^[14] as well as the unlawful deportation of 40 Uyghurs from Thailand to China. ^[15]

General concerns expressed in these cases include a lack of information about the detained individuals or their trials for years, the lack of independence of judges and lawyers, and the silencing of artists in the name of national security. The above cases are among a number brought before the UN experts in recent years, indicating a systemic practice of arbitrary detention in the country. The UN experts noted that some of these cases reflect deeply troubling patterns whereby cultural identity, artistic creativity, and academic work are treated as threats to national security in China.

Among the cases concerning Tibetans, two are regarding the rights to freedom of religion or belief, and Tibetan Buddhist institutions and leaders.

UN experts expressed concern at state interference in the process of succession of the 14^th Dalai Lama and the alleged efforts to interfere in the “reincarnation” practice. They were also concerned at the continued enforced disappearance of Gedhun Cheokyi Nyima, the 11^th Panchen Lama recognized by the 14^th Dalai Lama,^[16] as well as the death of Mr. Tulku Hungkar Dorje Rinpoche, a Tibetan spiritual leader, who died in custody in Viet Nam on 28 March 2025.^[17]

The UN experts also expressed concern regarding two Tibetan activists in detention: Ms Namkyi^[18] and Mr. A-Nya Sengdra.^[19]

Furthermore, in the field of cultural rights, the UN experts expressed concern at the alleged disappearance of the Tibetan nomenclature from the signage of the Quai Branly and Guimet museums, and its replacement with terms such as “Xizang Autonomous Region” and “Himalayan World”.^[20]

Additionally, in 2025 there was an occasion when UN experts communicated with the Chinese government regarding Chinese companies’ activities that were affecting Indigenous Peoples outside of China in 2025. This case relates to the violent physical attacks and intimidation attempts against Indigenous woman human rights defender Ms Dewi Anakoda, in apparent connection with her work exposing the human and environmental impact of nickel mining on the part of Chinese companies on Halmahera Island, Indonesia.^[21]

Due to the sensitivity of some of the issues covered in this article, the author(s) prefers to remain anonymous.

This article is part of the 40^th edition of The Indigenous World, a yearly overview produced by IWGIA that serves to document and report on the developments Indigenous Peoples have experienced. Find The Indigenous World 2026 in full here

Notes and references

^[1] Seventh National Population Census Bulletin,

https://www.gov.cn/guoqing/2021-05/13/content_5606149.htm

^[2] The National Park Law: http://www.npc.gov.cn/npc/c2/c30834/202509/t20250912_447755.html

^[3] Explanation of the Draft Amendment to the Law of the People's Republic of China on the Standard Spoken and Written Chinese Language: http://www.npc.gov.cn/npc///c2/c30834/202512/t20251224_450502.html

^[4] Draft Law of the People's Republic of China on Promoting Ethnic Unity and Progress (Second Draft for Review): http://www.npc.gov.cn/flcaw/userIndex.html?lid=ff8081819aedd63e019b5501c0a553e6

^[5] The 17^th Session of the Standing Committee of the Fourth National People's Congress deliberated on the draft law on promoting ethnic unity and progress: http://www.npc.gov.cn/npc/c2/c30834/202509/t20250909_447444.html

^[6] Human Rights Watch. “China: Draft ‘Ethnic Unity’ Law Tightens Ideological Control”. 28 September 2025.

https://www.hrw.org/news/2025/09/28/china-draft-ethnic-unity-law-tightens-ideological-control

^[7] Revised Regulations of the Tibet Autonomous Region on the Creation of a Model Area for Ethnic Unity and Progress (adopted 15 January 2025). https://mw.xizang.gov.cn/xxgk/zcfg/202501/t20250116_457829.html

and Regulations of Yanbian Korean Autonomous Prefecture on the Promotion of Ethnic Unity and Progress (adopted 23 August,2025). https://www.neac.gov.cn/seac/xwzx/202509/1182978.shtml

^[8] People’s Daily and Xinhua News Agency on the Fireworks Show, 21 September 2025, https://hb.rednet.cn/content/646943/65/15298362.html

^[9] Fireworks in Himalayas sparks outrage, forcing Canadian outdoor brand Arc’teryx to apologize, 22 September, 2025, https://www.ctvnews.ca/business/article/fireworks-in-himalayas-sparks-outrage-forcing-canadian-outdoor-brand-arcteryx-to-apologize/

^[10] Narayana IAS Academy. “Upper Siang Multipurpose Storage Project.” 11 July 2024. https://navigator.narayanaiasacademy.com/current-affairs/2024-07-10/Upper-Siang-Multipurpose-Storage-Project

^[11] Mandates of the Special Rapporteur on the independence of judges and lawyers and the Working

Group on Enforced or Involuntary Disappearances, Ref.: AL CHN 3/2025, 18 February 2025. https://spcommreports.ohchr.org/TMResultsBase/DownLoadPublicCommunicationFile?gId=29648

^[12] Opinions adopted by the Working Group on Arbitrary Detention at its 102^nd session, 1–10 April 2025, Opinion No. 10/2025 concerning Mulizati Tayier (China), A/HRC/WGAD/2025/10, 2 July 2025.

https://www.ohchr.org/sites/default/files/documents/issues/detention-wg/opinions/session102/a-hrc-wgad-2025-10-aev.pdf

^[13] Ibid.

^[14] Human Rights Council Working Group on Arbitrary Detention, Opinions adopted by the Working Group on Arbitrary Detention at its 103^rd session, 25–29 August 2025, Opinion No. 58/2025 concerning Nuermaimaiti Maiwulani (China), A/HRC/WGAD/2025/58, 21 October 2025.

https://www.ohchr.org/sites/default/files/documents/issues/detention-wg/opinions/session103/a-hrc-wgad-58-2025-aev.pdf

^[15] Mandates of the Special Rapporteur on torture and other cruel, inhuman or degrading treatment or punishment; the Working Group on Arbitrary Detention; the Working Group on Enforced or Involuntary Disappearances; the Special Rapporteur on extrajudicial, summary or arbitrary executions; the Special Rapporteur on minority issues and the Special Rapporteur on freedom of religion or belief, Ref.: AL CHN 8/2025, 26 May 2025.

https://spcommreports.ohchr.org/TMResultsBase/DownLoadPublicCommunicationFile?gId=29977; and China’s response to the case: CHN/HR/2025/50, July 2025. https://spcommreports.ohchr.org/TMResultsBase/DownLoadFile?gId=39097

^[16] Mandates of the Special Rapporteur in the field of cultural rights; the Working Group on Enforced or Involuntary Disappearances; the Special Rapporteur on the promotion and protection of the right to freedom of opinion and expression; the Special Rapporteur on minority issues and the Special Rapporteur on freedom of religion or belief, Ref.: AL CHN 14/2025, 15 July 2025.

https://spcommreports.ohchr.org/TMResultsBase/DownLoadPublicCommunicationFile?gId=30152

^[17] Mandates of the Working Group on Arbitrary Detention; the Working Group on Enforced or Involuntary Disappearances; the Special Rapporteur on extrajudicial, summary or arbitrary executions and the Special Rapporteur on minority issues, Ref.: AL CHN 15/2025, 8 August 2025.

https://spcommreports.ohchr.org/TMResultsBase/DownLoadPublicCommunicationFile?gId=30164

^[18] Mandates of the Special Rapporteur on the situation of human rights defenders; the Working Group on Arbitrary Detention; the Working Group on Enforced or Involuntary Disappearances; the Special Rapporteur on the promotion and protection of the right to freedom of opinion and expression; the Special Rapporteur on the rights to freedom of peaceful assembly and of association and the Special Rapporteur on torture and other cruel, inhuman or degrading treatment or punishment, Ref.: AL CHN 13/2025, 16 July 2025. https://spcommreports.ohchr.org/TMResultsBase/DownLoadPublicCommunicationFile?gId=30147

^[19] Mandates of the Special Rapporteur on the human right to a clean, healthy and sustainable environment; the Working Group on Arbitrary Detention; the Special Rapporteur on the promotion and protection of the right to freedom of opinion and expression; the Special Rapporteur on the rights to freedom of peaceful assembly and of association; the Special Rapporteur on the situation of human rights defenders; the Special Rapporteur on minority issues and the Special Rapporteur on torture and other cruel, inhuman or degrading treatment or punishment, Ref.: UA CHN 21/2025, 3 October 2025.

https://spcommreports.ohchr.org/TMResultsBase/DownLoadPublicCommunicationFile?gId=30408

^[20] Mandate of the Special Rapporteur in the field of cultural rights, Ref.: AL CHN 19/2025, 31 July 2025.

https://spcommreports.ohchr.org/TMResultsBase/DownLoadPublicCommunicationFile?gId=30239

^[21] Mandates of the Special Rapporteur on the situation of human rights defenders; the Working Group on the issue of human rights and transnational corporations and other business enterprises; the Special Rapporteur on the promotion and protection of human rights in the context of climate change; the Special Rapporteur in the field of cultural rights; the Special Rapporteur on the human right to a clean, healthy and sustainable environment; the Special Rapporteur on the right to food; the Special Rapporteur on the promotion and protection of the right to freedom of opinion and expression; the Special Rapporteur on the rights to freedom of peaceful assembly and of association; the Special Rapporteur on the implications for human rights of the environmentally sound management and disposal of hazardous substances and wastes and the Special Rapporteur on the human rights to safe drinking water and sanitation, Ref.: AL CHN 16/2025, 19 August 2025. https://spcommreports.ohchr.org/TMResultsBase/DownLoadPublicCommunicationFile?gId=30186

Tags: Global governance