The Indigenous World 2025: Brazil

Written on 25 April 2025. Posted in Brazil

According to data from the 2022 demographic census, Brazil is home to 266 Indigenous Peoples, comprising a population of 1,693,535 individuals and representing approximately 0.83% of the total Brazilian population.

These peoples communicate in 275 different languages. The northern region of Brazil is home to almost 45% of the Indigenous population, the state of Amazonas being the main region, with 490,000 Indigenous people. The rights of Indigenous Peoples are set out in a specific chapter of the 1988 Constitution (Title VIII, “Social Order”, Chapter VIII, “On the Indians”), in addition to other provisions scattered throughout the constitutional text and an article in the transitional provisions. On 25 July 2002, Brazil ratified Convention 169 of the International Labour Organization (ILO). 

This article is part of the 39^th edition of The Indigenous World, a yearly overview produced by IWGIA that serves to document and report on the developments Indigenous Peoples have experienced. The photo above is of an Indigenous activist Funa-ay Claver, a Bontok Igorot, standing alongside Indigenous youth activists and others. They are protesting against the repressive laws and human rights violations suffered through the actions and projects of the Government of the Philippines and other actors against Indigenous Peoples at President Marcos Jr’s national address on 22 July 2024 in Quezon City, Philippines. The photo was taken by Katribu Kalipunan ng Katutubong Mamamayan ng Pilipinas and is the cover of The Indigenous World 2025 where this article is featured. Find The Indigenous World 2025 in full here

Brazil's Indigenous Peoples faced historic challenges in 2024 but made significant advances in the struggle for their rights.

In addition to fighting for the demarcation of their territories, Indigenous Peoples were also notable protagonists in defending the environment, playing a crucial role in climate justice and global sustainability.

Progress in Indigenous policy: land demarcation, institutional action and political representation

The regularization of Indigenous Lands in Brazil has been driven by coordination between Indigenous leaders, social movements and government agencies. Since the election of President Luiz Inácio Lula da Silva in 2022, the country has undergone a major restructuring of its Indigenous policy, marked by the creation of the Ministry of Indigenous Peoples and the appointment of Indigenous leaders to strategic positions. For the first time in history, the National Foundation of Indigenous Peoples (FUNAI) and the Ministry of Indigenous Peoples are under the leadership of Indigenous women: Joênia Wapichana and Sônia Guajajara respectively. This change reflects the current government's commitment to strengthening the participation of Indigenous Peoples in the formulation and implementation of public policies aimed at guaranteeing their territorial, social and cultural rights.

The work of FUNAI and the Ministry of Indigenous Peoples has resulted in concrete progress, particularly in the resumption of land demarcation processes, which had been paralysed in recent years. Since 2023, the federal government has approved several Indigenous Lands, such as Aldeia Velha (Bahia), Cacique Fontoura (Mato Grosso), Acapuri de Cima (Amazonas), Potiguara de Monte-Mor (Paraíba) and Morro dos Cavalos (Santa Catarina), totalling more than 800,000 hectares of officially protected territory. These approvals are directly benefitting thousands of Indigenous people, guaranteeing greater territorial security and contributing to the preservation of the environment.

In addition to demarcation, FUNAI has intensified its coercive actions against illegal invasions, reinforcing the protection of lands still pending regularization. Some areas of the Amazon, such as the Piripkura (Mato Grosso) and Ituna-Itatá (Paraíba) Indigenous Lands, remain vulnerable to the illegal exploitation of natural resources. However, the restructuring of FUNAI has allowed for a more effective response to threats against these territories, including the expansion of protection operations and the strengthening of dialogue with Indigenous leaders to ensure greater legal security for the communities.

The Ministry of Indigenous Peoples, for its part, has played an essential role in the political coordination needed to guarantee the implementation of public policies aimed at Indigenous Peoples. Under the leadership of Sônia Guajajara, it has promoted sustainability programmes for Indigenous communities, guaranteeing technical and financial support for socioeconomic development initiatives aligned with environmental preservation and cultural appreciation. In addition, the Ministry has been directly involved in dialogue with the federal government to ensure that the Indigenous agenda is incorporated into national strategies for sustainable development and the fight against climate change.

Growing Indigenous representation has also been reflected in the national political scene. The 2024 municipal elections marked a breakthrough in the participation of Indigenous leaders in decision-making spaces, with a record number of candidates and representatives elected to legislative and executive positions. This movement demonstrates the growing strength of Indigenous Peoples’ political coordination and their search for a greater role in the formulation of public policies that guarantee their rights and interests. The presence of Indigenous people in Parliament and government bodies reinforces their struggle for territorial protection, guaranteed access to essential services and recognition of Indigenous cultures and traditions in Brazil.

Challenges do remain, however, that require continued commitment from the State and society to ensure that the rights of Indigenous Peoples are respected and that their lands are protected from external threats. Among these is the need to speed up the demarcation processes for several Indigenous territories: the Guyraroka Indigenous Land (Mato Grosso do Sul), which has been awaiting a judicial decision for more than 15 years, and the Tupinambá Indigenous Land of Olivença (Bahia), which faces strong opposition from rural producers and has not yet been fully recognized. In addition, Indigenous Lands in the Amazon, such as the Piripkura Indigenous Land (Mato Grosso) and the Ituna-Itatá Indigenous Land (Paraíba), remain vulnerable to illegal invasion as they have not yet received the necessary official protection. According to FUNAI, there are currently more than 240 Indigenous Lands at different stages of the regularization process, many of which face resistance from state governments and economic sectors interested in exploiting these areas.

The importance of legalizing Indigenous Lands goes beyond a territorial guarantee for Indigenous Peoples. Studies by the Socio-Environmental Institute show that regularized Indigenous Lands have significantly lower deforestation rates than unprotected territories. In addition, land legalization guarantees greater access to public health, education and sustainable development policies, strengthening the environmental and cultural preservation of these communities.

Challenges and advances in the defence of Indigenous rights

The struggle for Indigenous rights continues to face major barriers, especially with the so-called Temporary Framework thesis, which seeks to restrict the recognition of Indigenous Lands to only those that were occupied prior to 5 October 1988. The Federal Supreme Court continues to debate this issue, while Indigenous leaders warn of the negative impacts of this interpretation.^[1] Joênia Wapichana, president of FUNAI, emphasizes: “This thesis ignores the history of forced evictions and the right of Indigenous Peoples to their traditional lands. We continue to resist and demand respect for our rights.”

Despite the mobilization of Indigenous leaders, the decisions of the Superior Court of Justice have been criticized for disregarding the historical reality of Indigenous Peoples, ignoring centuries of violations of their territorial rights. This lack of respect for Indigenous claims and for the Brazilian Constitution itself has generated legal insecurity and increased land conflicts in the country.

Climate justice and the role of Indigenous Lands

Drought, fire, illegal mining and agribusiness

Extreme weather events in 2024 also exacerbated the situation in the Indigenous territories. A prolonged drought drastically lowered the level of rivers such as the Xingu, while fires devastated large areas of land such as Apyterewa and Karipuna, destroying more than 4,000 hectares of forest. These fires not only endanger the climate but also destroy traditional ways of life, forcing communities to look for alternatives outside of their territories.^[2] Illegal mining has intensified the crisis in the Yanomami territories, contaminating rivers with mercury, as in the case of the Uraricoera River. This contamination has compromised access to drinking water and the health of thousands of Indigenous individuals, causing a public health crisis that has led to the collapse of health care centres. According to the Socio-Environmental Institute, mercury poisoning rates have increased dramatically, especially among children and pregnant women.

Despite the government's efforts to combat illegal mining, this activity persists due to weak surveillance and inspection policies. The environmental degradation and serious health situation facing the Yanomami and Guaraní-Kaiowá peoples underscores the urgent need to prioritize the protection of their territories, a vital strategy for climate justice and global sustainability.

The precarious state of health of these Indigenous communities is another reflection of the challenges they face. In 2024, the Yanomami and Guaraní-Kaiowá territories faced worrying situations. In the Yanomami territory, more than 570 children died due to malnutrition and diseases such as malaria and pneumonia, while mercury contamination of rivers from illegal mining further exacerbated their living conditions. Among the Guaraní-Kaiowá, the Dourados Indigenous Reserve, one of the most densely populated reserves in the country, is an emblematic example of government neglect: more than 15,000 Indigenous people live on just 3,500 hectares, suffering from food insecurity, lack of access to drinking water and alarming rates of infant mortality.

According to reports from FUNAI and the Ministry of Health, 80% of children under five years of age in vulnerable territories suffered from severe malnutrition in 2024. This demonstrates the urgency of implementing effective public policies and reviving health centres in critical regions in order to improve the health and well-being of these Indigenous communities.

Climate justice and Indigenous Lands

Indigenous Lands play a crucial role in mitigating climate change. Data from the Socio-Environmental Institute show that these areas are home to more than 25% of the world's preserved tropical forests, act as natural barriers to deforestation and store large amounts of carbon.^[3] However, harmful activities such as illegal mining, burning and monoculture represent constant threats to these territories. The effective protection of Indigenous territories is an indispensable strategy for achieving the objectives of the Paris  Agreement, as these lands are recognized as effective in mitigating climate change, as well as playing an irreplaceable role in environmental conservation.

The preservation of these territories is not only a constitutional right of the Indigenous Peoples but also a fundamental strategy for global sustainability.

In 2024, according to data from the Socio-Environmental Institute, more than 4,000 hectares of forest were destroyed in Indigenous territories, with serious impacts on the climate and local communities. Territories such as Apyterewa, in Pará, and Karipuna, in Rondônia, have suffered due to a loss of biodiversity, river pollution and the disruption to traditional ways of life. For Célia Xakriabá, a member of the federal parliament: “Indigenous Lands are living barriers against climate collapse.” Protecting these essential areas is a fundamental strategy to guarantee the future of all, safeguarding environmental integrity and the sustainability of these ecosystems.

During the UN Biodiversity Conference of the Parties to the Convention on Biological Diversity (CBD COP16), held in 2024, Minister Sônia Guajajara emphasized the importance of regulating the carbon credit market fairly and inclusively. She highlighted the need to ensure that Indigenous Peoples are protagonists in global climate negotiations, with an active voice and decision-making power. The proposal to allocate financial resources directly to Indigenous communities that protect their ancestral forests was widely discussed and debated at the conference. However, the implementation of this measure depends on the establishment of solid regulations that prioritize Indigenous rights and autonomy, ensuring that they are the main beneficiaries and managers of these resources.

Humanitarian crisis among the Yanomami people

The humanitarian crisis facing the Yanomami people reveals the negligence of the State and the impacts of illegal mining, malnutrition and climate change. The contamination of rivers with mercury, caused by the uncontrolled advance of mining, has aggravated food and health insecurity, causing an alarming increase in cases of child illness and infant mortality. According to a report by the Oswaldo Cruz Foundation, 80% of Yanomami children show signs of severe malnutrition.^[4] In addition, data from the National Institute for Spatial Research indicate that deforestation in the region has increased by 30% due to illegal mining, thus exacerbating the effects of climate change on the Yanomami territory.^[5]

The Articulation of Indigenous Peoples of Brazil – APIB has denounced this situation as a true contemporary genocide, demanding urgent protection and assistance from the federal government and international organizations. The Ministry of Health reports that outbreaks of malaria and gastrointestinal diseases, caused by poor medical care, have doubled in the last two years, increasing the infant mortality rate yet more among the Yanomami.^[6]

Violence against the Guaraní-Kaiowá people and the impact of agribusiness

Violence against the Guaraní-Kaiowá, a direct consequence of the failure to demarcate their territories, has intensified due to increasing land value and the unbridled expansion of agribusiness. Agência Brasil reveals that violence against the Guaraní-Kaiowá continues to be alarming.^[7] Between 2022 and 2024, 38 murders of Indigenous people were recorded in Mato Grosso do Sul, most of them members of this people. In turn, recent reports indicate that the number may have been higher in 2024, with cases of armed attacks and killings in land disputes. One notable case was the murder of a young Guaraní-Kaiowá in the Ñande Ru Marangatu Indigenous Land in September 2024, thus reinforcing the vulnerability of this population in the context of the struggle for their territories.

In addition to physical violence, the indiscriminate use of pesticides on crops near the villages has caused serious environmental and health impacts for the Indigenous people. Studies by the Federal University of Grande Dourados indicate that 60% of the water samples collected in the Guaraní-Kaiowá communities showed alarming levels of pesticide contamination, thus polluting the water supply and increasing the incidence of diseases such as cancer and respiratory problems.^[8]
This development model, coupled with environmental degradation and deforestation, further aggravates the effects of climate change, creating a cycle of destruction that is threatening both Indigenous communities and the national biodiversity. Indiscriminate pesticide spraying has directly affected soil fertility and local biodiversity, reducing sustainable agricultural production in Indigenous territories.

Indigenous youth and the future of the struggle for rights

Indigenous youth participation in political and social movements has grown significantly in recent years. Today, 42% of the Indigenous population is under 18 years of age, and this new generation has positioned itself at the forefront of defending Indigenous rights, cultural revival and the occupation of previously inaccessible political and academic spaces. In the words of Txai Suruí, an Indigenous activist who represented Indigenous Peoples at COP26 (2021 UN Climate Change Conference): “We are occupying the place that has always been ours but which has historically been denied us. Our generation is no longer going to wait for rights to be guaranteed, we are going to take them.”

Despite the growing presence of Indigenous youth in Brazilian universities (according to data from the Ministry of Education, their presence has increased by 35% in the last decade), only 20% of Indigenous people between the ages of 18 and 24 are enrolled in higher education.^[9] In addition, they face barriers such as a lack of Internet access, financial difficulties and the absence of student retention policies.

The economic crisis also has a direct impact on young people, increasing food insecurity and making it difficult to access formal jobs. The Brazilian Institute of Geography and Statistics (IBGE) reports that the unemployment rate among Indigenous youth is 12% higher than the national average.^[10]

Combining tradition and modernity, many Indigenous youth have used social media as a tool of resistance, promoting awareness campaigns and digital engagement. This digital activism reinforces the reporting of rights violations and increases the visibility of the Indigenous struggle in Brazil and around the world.

Conclusion

An analysis of the challenges facing and progress made by Indigenous Peoples in Brazil in 2024 highlights the complexity of issues related to territorial rights, environmental sustainability and political participation. The demarcation and protection of Indigenous Lands continues to be a core element of guaranteeing the constitutional rights of these peoples and preserving the environment as studies indicate that protected Indigenous territories have lower deforestation rates and greater biodiversity conservation.

Although institutional progress has been made, with the creation of the Ministry of Indigenous Peoples and the resumption of demarcation processes, for example, challenges still remain. The judicialization of territories, the Temporary Framework thesis, illegal invasions and violence against Indigenous communities all demonstrate the need for the State’s continued commitment to guaranteeing these peoples’ legal and territorial security.

From an environmental point of view, the correlation between the preservation of Indigenous Lands and climate change mitigation reinforces the importance of public policies that align territorial protection, environmental monitoring and sustainable development models that respect Indigenous rights. In addition, strengthening the Indigenous presence in political and academic spaces can contribute to the formulation of more effective and inclusive strategies in environmental and social governance.

Against this backdrop, it is recommended that future public policies consider the following:

• Speed up land regularization processes, guaranteeing legal security for Indigenous communities.
• Strengthen environmental control policies, combating illegal practices such as deforestation and mining.
• Expand access to education and health care in Indigenous communities, with a view to greater social inclusion and economic development.
• Promote mechanisms for political and scientific participation, ensuring the incorporation of Indigenous knowledge and demands into national and international planning.
• Recognizing and valuing Indigenous Peoples as key players in environmental preservation and sustainable development is fundamental to building more effective public policies and meeting Brazil's climate and social commitments.

The role of Indigenous Peoples has been consolidated as an essential force in the struggle for rights and environmental sustainability. However, the same young people who are leading this resistance are also threatened by a lack of enforcement of their rights, especially with regard to land demarcation and environmental protection. Without concrete action by the State, these new leaders risk violence, marginalization and the loss of their territories.

To reverse this situation, it is essential that the State fulfil its role of guaranteeing the Indigenous rights established in the Constitution, promoting land regularization and protecting the territories from illegal invasions. It is also essential to strengthen environmental monitoring in order to prevent the advance of mining and deforestation, and to expand health and education policies in order to provide Indigenous communities with decent living conditions and cultural strengthening.

Indigenous participation in political decision-making spaces, both in Brazil and in international forums, must be expanded to ensure that the voices of Indigenous Peoples are heard and respected. The future of Brazil's environment and cultural diversity is dependent upon recognizing and respecting the rights of Indigenous Peoples: guaranteeing their lands and ways of life also means protecting the environmental balance for all humanity.

Maria de Lourdes Beldi de Alcântara is a Professor of Medical Anthropology at the Faculty of Medicine of the University of São Paulo. She is also the coordinator of AJI/GAPK Indigenous Youth Action.

This article is part of the 39^th edition of The Indigenous World, a yearly overview produced by IWGIA that serves to document and report on the developments Indigenous Peoples have experienced. The photo above is of an Indigenous activist Funa-ay Claver, a Bontok Igorot, standing alongside Indigenous youth activists and others. They are protesting against the repressive laws and human rights violations suffered through the actions and projects of the Government of the Philippines and other actors against Indigenous Peoples at President Marcos Jr’s national address on 22 July 2024 in Quezon City, Philippines. The photo was taken by Katribu Kalipunan ng Katutubong Mamamayan ng Pilipinas and is the cover of The Indigenous World 2025 where this article is featured. Find The Indigenous World 2025 in full here

Notes and references 

^[1] National Foundation of Indigenous Peoples (FUNAI). (2024). Informe sobre los impactos del Marco Temporal. Brasília: FUNAI.

^[2] Amazonian Network of Georeferenced Socio-environmental Information (RAISG). (2024). Monitoreo de incendios e impactos en tierras indígenas. RAISG.

^[3] Socio-Environmental Institute (ISA). (2024). Informe sobre Cambio Climático y Territorios Indígenas. São Paulo: ISA.

^[4] Fiocruz - Oswaldo Cruz Foundation. (2024). Impactos de la contaminación por mercurio en la salud de los Pueblos Indígenas de la Amazonia. Rio de Janeiro: Fiocruz.

^[5] National Institute for Spatial Research (INPE). (2024). Datos sobre la deforestación en la Amazonia. Brasília: INPE.

^[6] Ministry of Health. (2024). Estudio sobre la desnutrición y la crisis de salud en las comunidades indígenas. Brasília: Ministry of Health.

^[7] Agência Brasil. (2024). Informe sobre la violencia contra los pueblos indígenas en Brasil. Brasília: EBC/Agência Brasil.

^[8] Federal University of Grandes Dourados (UFGD). (2024). Análisis de la contaminación del agua por plaguicidas en territorios guaraní-kaiowá. Dourados: UFGD.

^[9] Ministry of Education. (2024). Indicadores de acceso a la educación superior de las poblaciones indígenas en Brasil. Brasília: MEC.

^[10] Brazilian Institute of Geography and Statistics (IBGE). (2024). Indicadores Sociales de los Pueblos Indígenas en Brasil: Censo 2024. Rio de Janeiro: IBGE.

Tags: Land rights, Youth, Business and Human Rights , Climate