The Indigenous World 2026: Botswana

Written on 22 April 2026. Posted in Botswana

Botswana is a country of 2,763,338 inhabitants, having celebrated its 59th year of independence in 2025. Its government does not recognize any specific ethnic groups as Indigenous, maintaining instead that all citizens of the country are Indigenous. However, 3.41% of the population identifies as belonging to an Indigenous group. These include: the San (known in Botswana as the Basarwa) who number around 76,231; the Balala (2,842); and the Nama (3,571), a Khoekhoespeaking people.

The San were traditionally huntergatherers but today the vast majority are smallscale agropastoralists, cattle post workers, or people with mixed economies. Only an estimated 300 San people are fulltime huntergatherers, although many others hunt or gather as a supplement to other food sources. The San consist of a large number of subgroups, most with their own languages, including the Ju/’hoansi, Bugakhwe, KhweǁAni, Ts'ixa, ǂX'aoǁ'aen,!Xóõ, ǂHoan, ‡Khomani, Naro, G/ui, G//ana, Tsasi, Deti, Bakhwe, Shua, Tshwa, Cuaa, Kua, Danisi and /Xaise. The San, Balala, and Nama are among the most underprivileged people in Botswana, with a high percentage living below the poverty line.

Botswana is a signatory to the UN Convention on the Elimination of All Forms of Discrimination against Women (CEDAW), UN Convention on the Rights of the Child (UNCRC) and International Convention on the Elimination of All Forms of Racial Discrimination (ICERD), and it voted in favor of the UN Declaration on the Rights of Indigenous Peoples (UNDRIP). However, it has not signed the Indigenous and Tribal Peoples Convention No. 169 (ILO 169). There are no specific laws on Indigenous Peoples’ rights in the country, and the concept of Indigenous people is not included in the Botswana Constitution. Botswana’s census does not include information on ethnicity. Botswana took part in the 24th Session of the UN Permanent Forum on Indigenous Issues (UNPFII), held in New York from 21 April to 2 May 2025.

Introduction

The year 2025 was a significant one in Botswana’s history with regard to Indigenous Peoples’ rights. It was the first year that an InterMinisterial Committee (IMC) was established, aimed at consid

ering San (Basarwa, Bushmen) issues. The government also launched radio programs in several Indigenous languages, including Naro. It furthermore had a visit from the UN Special Rapporteur on the rights of Indigenous Peoples, Dr. Albert Kwokwo Barume, who reported on the status of San in over a dozen communities and made recommendations for Botswana government consideration. For a number of reasons, as detailed below, Botswana faced a serious economic and health crisis in 2025. Moreover, fears of displacement due to the expansion of oil drilling and other resource extractive activities were expressed at the community level in several parts of the country.

Effects of the US suspension of foreign aid

On 30 January 2025, the US suspended foreign development assistance to all countries, including the aid given through the United States Agency for International Development (USAID) and the President’s Emergency Plan for AIDS Relief (PEPFAR). This termination was devastating for Botswana, which had been receiving USD 5060 million (approx. EUR 4250 million) annually, much of which had been distributed to the country’s NGOs and CSOs (NonGovernmental Organizations and Civil Society Organizations). The US funds covered around twothirds of the budgets for these organizations, which provide services in the areas of health, poverty alleviation, education and more from branches located throughout the country. By midFebruary, 85 organizations serving over 66,000 people had closed, and 680 of their employees had been let go.1 One of the largest was the Tebelopele Voluntary Testing and Counseling Services, which provided HIVrelated services through dozens of centers throughout the country, many of which provided essential services to Indigenous people such as the San.2

On 28 January, U.S. Secretary of State Marco Rubio issued a “blanket waiver for lifesaving humanitarian assistance” but only for services that do not relate to “gender or Diversity, Equity and Inclusion (DEI) ideology programs”.3 Within a month, Tebelopele had applied for and been approved for this waiver, and announced it was reopening almost all of its centers.4

Even after the waivers and other adjustments had taken effect, the US contribution to Botswana during the 2025 fiscal year was USD 13.3 million (approx. EUR 11.2 million) – around a quarter of the previous year, which was USD 50 million (approx. EUR 42.3 million). In March, USAID itself was dissolved by the US government, with its remaining functions transferred to the US State Department.5

Inter-Ministerial Committee established to listen to the Basarwa

In February, President Duma Boko and the Minister of Justice and Correctional Services, Nelson Ramaotwana, discussed the establishment of a new InterMinisterial Committee, which would be mandated to “look comprehensively at the situation of the Basarwa in Botswana, including the communities found in the Central Kalahari Game Reserve (CKGR), and to come up with sustainable solutions that respect the rights, culture and dignity of Basarwa.”

On 14 March, Mr. Ramaotwana described the plan to Botswana’s parliament, saying that: “the heart of the mandate is a review of the 1986 National Settlement Policy”, which had been controversial because it involved moving some Remote Area Development (RAD) settlements to new areas in order to “enable better service provision”.6

The committee, chaired by Ms Naledi Moroka, Permanent Secretary in the Ministry of Justice and Correctional Services, comprised the permanent secretaries of the ministries of Local Government and Traditional Affairs, Justice and Correctional Services, Environment and Tourism, Lands and Agriculture, among others.7

A meeting was held on 7 April, during a Kgotla (public) meeting in the town of Bere in the Ghanzi district. It was conducted by the Permanent Secretary of the Ministry of Lands and Agriculture, Mr. Kabelo Ebineng, who outlined the reasons for the meeting and encouraged the Basarwa present to speak their minds.

Kgosi David Resetswana, a community leader, said that more should be done to include Basarwa in discussions of national development because they “…felt they had been forgotten and felt left out”. He noted that the Basarwa in Bere did not live close to the town center and needed road infrastructure, electricity and an improved telecommunications network. He added that Bere had developed a craft center funded by the UN Development Programme.8

A second meeting of the committee was held the following day in New Xade, where San who used to live in the CKGR had been relocated in 1997. Kgosi Lobatse Beslag, a San, said the relocation to New Xade was difficult because their rights had not been considered. The community expressed their longing for the way of life they had enjoyed while living in the game reserve and pleaded with the government to let them return. They said that if they were allowed to return, they would remain in any area the government designated, suggesting that their new settlement could receive water from Gope. They said they would use their knowledge of the natural resources that were abundant in the park, and would help to preserve them.

Mr. Jumanda Gakelebone, a San member of the Ghanzi District Council, expressed his gratitude to the ministerial team, and said the meeting had given the community hope. He urged the committee to work toward a constitutional amendment to help align policies with human rights. He also strongly suggested that the committee work closely with civil organizations that are promoting the rights of the Basarwa (which has not been done as of the time of writing).

The Permanent Secretary in the Ministry of Environment and Tourism, Mr. Boatametse Modukanele, who organized the meeting, encouraged the community to put their views in writing to the committee.9

In June, members of the InterMinisterial Committee heard a report on the San communities of the North West district, presented by Ms Oritjiua Setekia, the Principal Development Officer in the region. Some of her detailed findings on the communities, which included Mababe, Khwai, Solemo, and Phuduhudu, were as follows: The population of San in these areas had grown significantly between the 2011 and 2022 population censuses. The spiritual aspects of this minority group must be considered by government; most of the San in these areas had been displaced from their original areas such as Savuti, Moremi Game Reserve and the Khoemacau region, and they wanted to be able to visit their birthplaces “to revive connections with their ancestors” and to connect with “the spirit of their forefathers”. They also objected to the government’s local development planning, which is centered only around urban areas, excluding their small rural communities.10

President declares health emergency

By August, Botswana was running out of medical supplies, and President Duma Boko declared a “health emergency” due to a dwindling economy spurred by a diminished diamond market and the USAID cuts mentioned previously.

On 4 August, the Ministry of Health suspended nonurgent surgery and stated that the country had run out of medicines to treat hypertension, diabetes, cancer and most other diseases, including those necessary for HIV prevention and care.11

The health crisis affected the entire country; however, the San, who are often marginalized and live in remote areas, experienced disproportionate suffering due to preexisting challenges in accessing healthcare and government services.

In D’Kar in the Ghanzi District, the San comprise most of the population of 2,500, 450 of whom are children under five. Over 80% of these small children are malnourished. Pregnant women are also malnourished, and this is passed on to their babies. Malnourished people are also more susceptible to other diseases such as tuberculosis, which has been increasing in D’Kar.12

Visit by the UN Rapporteur on the rights of Indigenous Peoples

After persistent complaints from advocacy groups about violations of the human rights of the San (Basarwa), the UN Human Rights Council announced it would send Special Rapporteur on the rights of Indigenous Peoples,13 Dr. Albert K. Barume, to Botswana. Dr. Barume spent the first 12 days of September in the country, first meeting with President Boko, whom he congratulated for initiating a “profound policy shift in [the] approach to Indigenous Peoples” and for instituting the InterMinisterial Committee. He then visited several communities – Gaborone, Lokgwae Nama Ward, Zutshwa, Ghanzi, Grootlagte, D’Kar, Shaikarwe, Tsodilo, Molapo, the Central Kalahari Game Reserve (CKGR), Maun and Nata – to meet with Indigenous Peoples and their representatives.

In his “End of Mission Statement”14 Dr. Barume made the following recommendations and observations. [Quotations from participants are in italics.]

Legal recognition: There is currently a complete absence of “legal and constitutional recognition of communities selfidentifying as Indigenous Peoples” because the section of the constitution that offered protection for them was removed in 2005. Those he visited said their top priority was a reinstatement of constitutional recognition and related reforms. “It is as if we don’t belong to this country, yet we were the first inhabitants.”

Land rights: Changes should be made in laws and procedures to permit San to exercise authority over their lands and resources. In particular, the government should reverse the settlement plan that has required people to leave their customary territory. They should be permitted to return to their homelands. “Relocation destroys us, kills our sense of community, undermines our sense of culture…we feel disconnected, hopeless and lost.”

Representation: San communities continually expressed frustration at their lack of representation at all levels of government. The Tswana tribal leaders administer customary law in many of their communities, and San are not represented in the House of Chiefs, where their languages are usually misunderstood.

Culture and language: Most communities worry about the future of their languages, where fluent speakers are generally aging. San have a strong culture, including hunting and tracking skills, dance and art, which could provide economic benefits for them.

Right to education: Many if not most Indigenous communities are too small to be supplied with onsite schools, either primary or secondary. Communities are told that they “do not have the numbers” to qualify for schools or, in fact, for other government services. This is due to a “populationbased development system” in Botswana. Fortunately, the Ministry of Child Welfare and Basic Education is aware that a different education model is needed for Indigenous children, which might include establishing satellite or mobile schools and translating teaching materials into Indigenous languages. Although the government language policy provides for the use of “mother tongue” instruction, there are few Indigenous teachers. Government should consider hiring residents who know the languages and could be employed as teacher aides.

When children reach the age for secondary school, the situation is truly dire. The San students are moved to hostels that are near the schools but usually far from their homes. Hostels are known for bullying, theft, and inadequate food, and children often run away from them. Children, especially girls, are subject to abuse by men around the hostels. One San girl said, “Young girls are therefore attended by men who give them money and drugs. Therefore, the girls become pregnant.” The girls drop out of school, and many become infected with HIV. Government must review the hostel system to make sure that San children can receive quality education while retaining their dignity, health, and security.

Equal access to public services: “It seems like all government development policies and programs were designed while we were sleeping. When we woke up everything was designed to exclude us. If we ask for help, they give us papers but that is most difficult because we do not know how to read and write. We have lost hope completely.”

The Remote Area Development Programme (RADP), introduced in 1978, was intended to reduce the inequality between those living in remote communities and those in more urban areas. The problem was that it failed to take account of communities’ specific characteristics, such as population size, ethnicity and culture. Some communities do not have any recognized rights to lands and resources, which makes planning for development impossible. There is hope that the forthcoming National Development Plan 12 (NDP 12) will reflect a more realistic picture of the variety of communities in the country.

Most San communities reported that they were experiencing chronic poverty. Because their opportunities for employment are almost nonexistent, they depend on government services for food, water, health care, electricity, transport, and all other necessities of life. The elderly are particularly vulnerable – they may have to travel for hours in trucks to receive health care or their pensions.

Dr. Barume recommended the provision of mobile health clinics and training of health care workers proficient in Indigenous languages. However, he does not mention the likely impact of the termination of USAID, which would have funded these types of services.

The need for disaggregated data: In order to understand populations, identify their needs, and monitor the results of the programs and changes that the government is considering, the collection of demographic data should be revised to include tribal and ethnic identity. At present, it is difficult to estimate the extent of problems in the education or health systems as they apply to the San and to other groups as well.

Regional and international cooperation: Redressing historical injustices against Indigenous people will require considerable effort and resources. Dr. Barume calls upon “likeminded governments, donors, and civil society organizations in the region and at a global scale to assist the Government and the Indigenous People of Botswana in their journey, including by providing the technical assistance, lessons learned and good practices, capacitybuilding efforts and other resources that may be needed.”

Natural resourcerelated issues

In 2025, a new CommunityBased Natural Resources Management Act was enacted.15 There were calls to revamp the country’s hunting quota system in the face of what could be described as a “poaching crisis” involving elephants.16 Numerous Indigenous and other communities in Botswana depend on the income and benefits received from joint venture partnerships with safari companies. Several communities, including the Tsodilo Hills, expressed fears that they were being told to relocate due to oil prospecting activities being conducted by ReconAfrica.

Robert K. Hitchcock is a Professor in the Department of Anthropology at the University of New Mexico in the USA. Email: This email address is being protected from spambots. You need JavaScript enabled to view it.

Judith Frost is an editor and researcher based in New York who has been involved with Indigenous Peoples’ issues for many years. Email: This email address is being protected from spambots. You need JavaScript enabled to view it.

Melinda Kelly works with the Kalahari Peoples Fund (KPF), a nonprofit nongovernment organization based in Omaha, Nebraska, in the USA. Email: This email address is being protected from spambots. You need JavaScript enabled to view it.

Maria Sapignoli is an Associate Professor in the Department of Philosophy at the University of Milan in Italy. Email: This email address is being protected from spambots. You need JavaScript enabled to view it.

This article is part of the 40^th edition of The Indigenous World, a yearly overview produced by IWGIA that serves to document and report on the developments Indigenous Peoples have experienced. Find The Indigenous World 2026 in

Notes and references

• Phiri, “US aid suspension forces 85 centres to close.” Ngami Times. 7 February 2025.
• “Gov’t confirms Tebelopele nationwide ” Mmegi, 6 February 2025.
• Kates, Jennifer, et “US foreign aid freeze and dissolution of USAID: timeline of events.” KFF (Kaiser Family Foundation), 24 October 2025.
• “Tebelepole resumes ” The People’s Daily News Online’s Post, Facebook. 10 March 2025.
• KFF, 24 October 2025.
• Tlhankane, “Gov’t to comprehensively examine Basarwa situation.” Mmegi, 14 March 2025.
• Ministry of Local Government and Traditional Affairs. “Basarwa community voice concerns over systemic marginalization and neglect in key areas during ” Botswana Post – Facebook, 6 June 2025.
• “Committee starts Basarwa ” African Press, 10 April 2025.
• “Basarwa seek relocation to ” Daily News, 9 April 2025.
• Kgamanyane, “How to alleviate struggle of Basarwa in North West!” The Ngami Times, 16 June 2025.
• Savage, “Botswana’s president declares health emergency over supply shortages.” The Guardian, 26 August 2025.
• Kgamanyane, (1) “Saving the malnourished souls of D’Kar.” Mmegi, 22 August 2025. (2) “Poverty and disease in D’kar: a teen’s story.” Mmegi, 12 September 2025.
• “UN to probe Botswana on Basarwa ” Sunday Standard, 5 September 2025.
• The entire text of this section is drawn from Dr. Barume’s “End of Mission Statement: United Nations Special Rapporteur on the Rights of Indigenous Peoples, Albert K. Barume, Official Country Visit to Botswana 112 September 2025,” UN Human Rights Council.
• Ministry of Environment and Botswana Community Based Natural Resources Management Act. Gaborone: Government Printer, 2025.
• Schlosberg, Scott and Michael Chase. “Scientific Review of Botswana’s Elephant Hunting ” Kasane: Elephants Without Borders; Daily News, 25 November 2025.

Tags: Global governance