The Indigenous World 2025: Australia
As of June 2021, there were 984,000 Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander people, representing 3.8% of the total Australian population.[1] The most recent available data from the Australian Bureau of Statistics indicates that, among Indigenous Australians, 41% (401,700) live in major cities and 15% (150,900) live in remote and very remote areas combined. The proportion of the total population who were Indigenous increased with remoteness, from 2.2% in major cities to 30% in remote and very remote areas.[2]
The age structure of the Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander population is younger than the non-Indigenous population, with both the proportion of young people being larger and the proportion of older people being smaller. This is due to higher birth rates and lower life expectancy in the Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander population compared with that of the non-Indigenous population. One-third (33.1%) of Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander people are under the age of 15 years compared to 17.9% of non-Indigenous People in the same age group. Only 5.4% of the Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander population are 65 years and over compared with 17.2% of the non-Indigenous population.[3] Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander peoples are vastly over-represented in the Australian criminal justice system, with 2,481 prisoners per 100,000 Indigenous People – 15 times greater than for the non-Indigenous population.[4]
There are 3,338 Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander corporations registered under the federal Corporations (Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander) Act 2006 (CATSI Act), including 258 registered native title bodies corporate.[5] This does not include a large number of businesses run by Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander people, of which there are more than 12,500.[6]
There is currently no reference to Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander peoples in the national Constitution. Initially Australia voted against the UN Declaration on the Rights of Indigenous Peoples (UNDRIP) in 2007 but formally endorsed it in 2009.[7]
This article is part of the 39th edition of The Indigenous World, a yearly overview produced by IWGIA that serves to document and report on the developments Indigenous Peoples have experienced. The photo above is of an Indigenous activist Funa-ay Claver, a Bontok Igorot, standing alongside Indigenous youth activists and others. They are protesting against the repressive laws and human rights violations suffered through the actions and projects of the Government of the Philippines and other actors against Indigenous Peoples at President Marcos Jr’s national address on 22 July 2024 in Quezon City, Philippines. The photo was taken by Katribu Kalipunan ng Katutubong Mamamayan ng Pilipinas and is the cover of The Indigenous World 2025 where this article is featured. Find The Indigenous World 2025 in full here
The Indigenous Peoples of Australia continue to be disadvantaged by current and developing legislation and policies. A major factor has been the ongoing trauma associated with the loss of the referendum in 2023 to establish an “Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander Voice” in the Federal Parliament.[8] This loss has implanted the fact in the minds of many Indigenous Peoples that Australia remains a country that predominantly continues to hold racist stereotypes and views about its Indigenous Peoples.[9] The Voice to Parliament Referendum's failure significantly affected youth advocacy and representation.[10], [11], [12], [13] Several other pieces of legislation have had negative impacts on Indigenous young people.[14],[15]
Current positive developments include the progress in negotiating treaties between individual states and Indigenous Peoples. Additionally, the impactful work undertaken by oversight bodies such as the Federal Productivity Commission[16] and the NSW Ombudsman’s Office,[17] which identify and respond to areas of disadvantage for Indigenous children and young people.
The key to change and improved outcomes is Indigenous Peoples’ role in designing, leading, implementing and evaluating policies and programs that are culturally responsive and safe.
Closing the Gap
The National Agreement on Closing the Gap is an initiative by the Australian government with the objective of overcoming the inequalities experienced by Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander people.[18] Progress against the targets in the National Agreement is being monitored by the Productivity Commission (PC) and this oversight will help all parties to the Closing the Gap Agreement understand how their efforts are contributing to progress over the ten-year span of the National Agreement.[19]
Over the past year, there has been a continuing slide in the outcomes achieved by Closing the Gap. This was highlighted by the public release of PC’s report on 7 February 2024, which was handed to the Joint Council on Closing the Gap on 24 January 2024.[20] This is the PC's first review of progress on the National Agreement on Closing the Gap. The key message of this report is that fundamental changes are required to deliver on the Agreement.
The PC also released a scathing final report with four major recommendations aimed at driving meaningful progress. Governments must genuinely share decision-making power with Indigenous Peoples, emphasising power-sharing through stronger partnerships and recognising the expertise of Aboriginal Community Controlled Organisations. Supporting Indigenous Data Sovereignty is required, ensuring that Indigenous communities have ownership and control over their data in order to inform culturally relevant solutions.
The report calls for a fundamental overhaul of entrenched government systems and cultures that hinder progress, urging government departments to utilise evidence-based transformation strategies. To ensure accountability, governments need to establish additional independent oversight mechanisms, embed obligations into major inter-governmental agreements, and report transparently on their progress. Without significant action, the Agreement risks failing to close the gap in life outcomes between Indigenous and non-Indigenous Australians.[21]
Closing the Gap Targets – criminal justice system
An ongoing upturn in the number of Indigenous people who had been incarcerated during 2024 continued. Each jurisdiction has its own method of collating incarceration rates, but we have focused on the results related to NSW – the largest jurisdiction in Australia. The NSW Bureau of Crime Statistics and Research has collated detailed data related to the incarceration of Indigenous adults and young people.
A matter of long-standing and justified public concern is the over-representation of Indigenous Australians in custody. According to the latest figures, the Aboriginal imprisonment rate in NSW (the State having the largest population in Australia) is nearly 10 times the non-Aboriginal imprisonment rate.[22] Aboriginal people are disproportionally represented at every stage of the criminal justice system. Constituting only 3.4% of the adult NSW population, and 6.2% of the population in the age range 10-17 years, they comprise over 30% of the population in adult prisons and 50% of the youth detention population. There are three Closing the Gap Targets that relate to crime and justice:[23]
- Closing the Gap Target 10 – Provides that Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander adults are not over-represented in the criminal justice system.[24] In 2024, the number of incarcerated Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander people increased by 15% (15,871), accounting for 36% of the national prison population.[25] “In March 2024 there were 3,841 Aboriginal adults in custody, the highest number ever recorded. The recent increase is solely due to the remand population. In March 2024, the number of Aboriginal people held on remand in NSW alone was the highest on record (1,763), up 27.5% since March 2022.”[26]
- Closing the Gap Target 11 – Provides that Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander young people are not over-represented in the criminal justice system.[27] “In March 2024 there were 148 Aboriginal young people in detention, which is 66.4% of the youth detention population (a new record). Currently, 78.4% of Aboriginal young people in detention are on remand. In March 2024, there were 116 Aboriginal young people on remand (up 35 or 43.2% since March 2022). More than half of the Aboriginal youth remand population are in detention for break and enter (29.3%) or car theft (22.4%).”[28]
- Closing the Gap Target 13 – “Aims to reduce the rate of all forms of family violence and abuse against Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander women and children by at least 50%, as progress towards zero.”[29] In December 2024, 2 in 3 (67%) Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander people who reported experiencing violence in the last 12-months had experienced domestic and family violence. Family violence accounted for 72% of assault hospitalisations.[30]
Raising the age of criminal responsibility
While some states have made progress, others have faced opposition to the national campaign to raise the age of criminal responsibility from 10 to 14 years across all states and territories of Australia. Australia’s peak medical and legal bodies have welcomed the findings and recommendations of the Australian Human Rights Commission report on Youth Justice, which includes raising the minimum age of criminal responsibility from 10 to 14 years.[31]
Reform in this area is especially relevant to Indigenous children and young people given that Aboriginal youth in Western Australia are almost 50 times more likely to be in youth detention than non-Indigenous children. Data published by the Australian Institute for Health and Welfare reveals that 49% of young people in detention are Indigenous, compared to their prevalence (5.8%) in the population of Australian youth aged 10-17.[32]
Numerous experts, including the United Nations, child welfare groups, medical experts, human rights lawyers, and advocates, argue that the minimum age of criminal responsibility should be raised to at least 14 to better align with international standards and protect the unique rights of children.[33]
The state of Victoria raised the age of criminal responsibility from 10 to 12 in 2024.[34] The Australian Capital Territory (ACT) has committed to raising the age to 14 through a staged process.[35] Tasmania has raised the minimum age of detention to 14 but the age of criminal responsibility remains at 10.[36] NSW, Queensland and Western Australia have made no commitment to increase the age of criminal responsibility.[37], [38], [39]
Establishment of the National Commission for Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander Children and Young People
A key achievement in 2024 was the establishment of the National Commission for Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander Children and Young People. The aim of this national commission is to support better outcomes for Indigenous children, young people, and their families. This commission is independent and will be officially operational from 13 January 2025. The commissioner's role is to champion Indigenous children’s strengths, sense of hope, and ideas for change.[40] A budget of 5.9 million dollars has been set aside over two years to establish an interim National Commissioner for Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander Children and Young People. The interim National Commissioner will work in partnership with Indigenous Peoples and communities, states and territories, and other stakeholders, to design the specific powers, roles, and functions of the legislated independent National Commissioner. The National Commissioner will work to protect and promote the rights, interests, and well-being of First Nations children and young people.[41]
Several states and territories across Australia have specifically appointed Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander Children and Young People’s Commissioners, including Victoria, South Australia, and the Australian Capital Territory. The inaugural Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander Children and Young Peoples Commissioner for the Australian Capital Territory began her role in February 2024.[42] Western Australia has a Commissioner for Children and Young People, with a mandate that includes a strong focus on Aboriginal children.
Progress on treaties
After the failed Voice to Parliament Referendum, most states and territories in Australia began to develop treaties. There are various levels of progress being made in these treaties or treaty processes, as outlined below.
New South Wales (NSW) is Australia’s first state. It was here that the original failure to recognise Indigenous Peoples’ sovereignty was made. NSW has the largest population of Indigenous Peoples in the country but is yet to take formal steps towards a treaty. NSW continues to trail behind other jurisdictions on Treaty, with the Minns Labor Government taking backwards steps on their election promise after the failed Voice Referendum. A planned 12-month Treaty consultation process was set to begin before the middle of the year, 2024.[43]
Tasmania is the state with the smallest number of Indigenous Peoples in Australia with limited progress being made in Treaty negotiations, A draft Lutruwita (Tasmania) Treaty Bill 2023 was submitted by the “Tuylupa Tunapri” to the Tasmanian government, requesting the establishment of a Treaty and Truth-telling Commission, and for a finalised Treaty Bill to be tabled in parliament by 30 June 2024. In August 2024, Tasmanian Indigenous people and supporters set up a camp outside the state’s Parliament House, refusing to move until the government committed to Treaty legislation.[44]
In April 2024 the Northern Territory Labour government held Treaty symposiums in both Darwin and Alice Springs in April to plot a pathway forward towards establishing a Treaty. In August 2024, there was a change of Government in the Northern Territory, and the new administration has not announced any policies on advancing the treaty processes.[45]
The Australian Capital Territory (ACT) has made no progress on the development of a Treaty since its February 2023 announcement that it would set up an Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander Eminent Panel for Community Engagement and Healing in the ACT as the first step in developing a treaty. Since that time, nothing further has been heard about the Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander Eminent Panel.[46]
As of April 2024, no dedicated treaty talks or processes were underway in Western Australia (WA).[47]
The Path to Treaty in Queensland has been marked by incredible success and formidable barriers. The Queensland Government passed the Path to Treaty Act in 2023. The 16 September 2024 marked the formal opening of the Truth-telling and Healing inquiry.[48]
Victoria has made the most progress of all the states in developing a treaty, with eight years of engagement. Victoria has twice passed legislation, developed policies, and made commitments across every level of government. Victoria’s Treaty is about putting practical frameworks in place to implement better policies and make sure Indigenous Peoples have a say in decisions that impact their own lives.[49]
Indigenous Cultural and Intellectual Property Rights
In July 2024, the Australian Law Council published a new legislative framework to protect Indigenous Cultural and Intellectual Property Rights, recognising the importance of Indigenous cultural heritage. The framework addresses the limitation of current laws, which often conflict with Indigenous customary laws, particularly communal ownership and oral traditions. The legislation aligns with international standards such as the UNDRIP, aiming to ensure self-determination and communal recognition of both tangible and intangible cultural heritage.
Key components of the framework include a constitutional basis for protections, covering categories such as artistic ownership, traditional knowledge, and cultural property. It emphasises that international standards for the rights and recognition of Indigenous Peoples’ intellectual property remain unmet in Australia.[50]
In a letter to the Australian government in April, the UN Committee on the Elimination of Racial Discrimination outlined serious concerns it had with Australia’s governments in relation to Indigenous cultural heritage issues.[51] It expressed deep concerns with WA laws that do not protect Aboriginal cultural heritage, leaving it vulnerable to further destruction by mining and development. As of 2023, WA had passed laws that further encroach on the rights of Indigenous Peoples under the UN charter. This was in response to the 2023 destruction of Aboriginal cites by Rio Tinto[52] and aims to minimise the responsibilities of mining companies and developers.
Policies, programmes and events impacting Indigenous youth
It is fundamental that Indigenous youth have a voice at all levels of society and determine their own needs and futures. There are various youth initiatives across the country, and the following are some examples.
The National Aboriginal Community Controlled Health Organisation held a conference on 2 December 2024, which was an opportunity for Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander youth aged 18-26 to be heard. This conference began in 2019 and has been held in 2022, 2023, 2024 and allows youth to learn about informing policy, influencing change, and providing pathways for voices to be heard.[53]
The 2024 AIATSIS Summit Youth Forum drew together young native title holders, advocates, and others to discuss the experiences of Indigenous youth. Lilly-Rae Jones and Latoya-Sharnae Jones hosted this forum. The forum took place from 4-6 June 2024.[54]
The South Australian Commissioner for Aboriginal Children and Young People hosted the OUR SAY Public Speaking competition for Indigenous school children aged 3-18.[55]
The National Indigenous Youth Coalition and other non-Government organisations are scaling up efforts to support Indigenous-led initiatives focusing on education, mental health, and self-determination.[56]
Initiatives such as the Indigenous Knowledge Systems Programs in schools aim to incorporate traditional ecological knowledge into mainstream education, offering a brighter and more inclusive future for the youth.[57],[58]
A new pilot culturally safe training and employment program creating pathways for Aboriginal young people into new employment was rolled out by the Department of Human Services, which aims to reduce the over-representation of Aboriginal Youth in the Justice System.[59]
International engagement
Indigenous representatives from Australia participated in the UN Permanent Forum on Indigenous Issues (UNPFII) and other global platforms in 2024. These events focused on issues such as Free, Prior, and Informed Consent, and Indigenous rights in relation to extractive industries. Youth involvement is growing as organisations emphasise intergenerational equity.[60]
The 17th Session of the UN Expert Mechanism on the Rights of Indigenous People (EMRIP) in Geneva discussed the ongoing crisis of Indigenous child removals in Australia. Advocate Hannah McGlade and Commissioner April Lawrie expressed the need for self-determination and the implementation of the Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander Placement Principle. EMRIP has called for Australia to prioritise self-determination and align its laws with international standards to improve outcomes for Indigenous children and communities.[61]
Belinda Kendall is a Worimi, Barkindji, Wailwan, and Wiradjuri woman from NSW and Director of Aboriginal Enterprise Curijo Pty Ltd and Karralika Programs. Belinda’s studies and employment have primarily been in the human and community services, child and family, Indigenous business and adult education sectors. Her passion is to improve the lives of, and outcomes for, Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander Peoples through healing and leadership.
Bill Pritchard is a Wiradjuri man from NSW who has significant experience in public and community service and is committed to social justice, equity and equality. Bill’s studies and experience have primarily been in the child, family and community sector holding various senior positions including Board and CEO positions on national, state and community organisations. Bill’s focus is on equity for Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander Peoples.
We acknowledge the research support of Jemma Newton for this chapter.
This article is part of the 39th edition of The Indigenous World, a yearly overview produced by IWGIA that serves to document and report on the developments Indigenous Peoples have experienced. The photo above is of an Indigenous activist Funa-ay Claver, a Bontok Igorot, standing alongside Indigenous youth activists and others. They are protesting against the repressive laws and human rights violations suffered through the actions and projects of the Government of the Philippines and other actors against Indigenous Peoples at President Marcos Jr’s national address on 22 July 2024 in Quezon City, Philippines. The photo was taken by Katribu Kalipunan ng Katutubong Mamamayan ng Pilipinas and is the cover of The Indigenous World 2025 where this article is featured. Find The Indigenous World 2025 in full here
Notes and references
[1] Australian Bureau of Statistics. “Estimates of Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander Australians.” June 2021. https://www.abs.gov.au/statistics/people/aboriginal-and-torres-strait-islander-peoples/estimates-aboriginal-and-torres-strait-islander-australians/jun-2021
[2] Australian Institute of Health and Welfare. “Profile of First Nations people”. 2 July 2024. https://www.aihw.gov.au/reports/australias-welfare/profile-of-indigenous-australians#:~:text=Indigenous%20Australians%20live%20in%20all,higher%20in%20more%20remote%20areas
[3] Australian Bureau of Statistics. “Estimates of Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander Australians”. 31 August 2023. https://www.abs.gov.au/statistics/people/aboriginal-and-torres-strait-islander-peoples/estimates-aboriginal-and-torres-strait-islander-australians/latest-release#back-to-top
[4] Australian Bureau of Statistics. “Prisoners in Australia”. 19 December 2024. Accessed 22 January 2025. https://www.abs.gov.au/statistics/people/crime-and-justice/prisoners-australia/latest-release
[5] Commonwealth of Australia, National Indigenous Australians Agency. “Annual Report 2022-23”. 2023. https://www.transparency.gov.au/publications/prime-minister-and-cabinet/national-indigenous-australians-agency/national-indigenous-australians-agency-annual-report-2022-23
[6] Parliament of Australia. “Examining the untapped potential of Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander businesses”. 8 April 2024. https://www.aph.gov.au/About_Parliament/House_of_Representatives/About_the_House_News/Media_Releases/Examining_the_untapped_potential_of_Aboriginal_and_Torres_Strait_Islander_businesses
[7] Australian Human Rights Commission. “Questions and answers on the UN Declaration on the Rights of Indigenous Peoples (2009)”. Accessed 30 January 2025. https://humanrights.gov.au/our-work/questions-and-answers-un-declaration-rights-indigenous-peoples-2009
[8] See: Kendall, Belinda and Pritchard, Bill, “Australia”. In the Indigenous World 2024, edited by Dwayne Mamo 510-519. IWGIA, 2024. https://iwgia.org/en/australia/5398-iw-2024-australia.html
[9] Cleal, Olivia. “One year on: Indigenous communities reflect on the failed Voice to Parliament referendum.” Women’s Agenda, October 14, 2024. https://womensagenda.com.au/latest/one-year-on-indigenous-communities-reflect-on-the-failed-voice-to-parliament-referendum/
[10] Creative Industries. “I studied how rumours and misleading information spread on X during the Voice referendum. The results paint a worrying picture.” QUT Real Focus, 7 August 2024. Accessed 12 December 2024. https://www.qut.edu.au/news/realfocus/i-studied-how-rumours-and-misleading-information-spread-on-x-during-the-voice-referendum.-the-results-paint-a-worrying-picture
[11] Kiss, Katie. “A Statement by Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander Social Justice Commissioner, Katie Kiss on Item 3.” Australian Human Rights Commission, 8 July 2024. Accessed 11 December 2024. https://humanrights.gov.au/about/news/speeches/emrip-lack-constitutional-recognition-first-nations-peoples
[12] Kiss, Katie. “The year our Voice broke: The fallout from the failed referendum”. the Australian, Human Rights Commission, 14 October 2024. Accessed 12 December 2024. https://humanrights.gov.au/about/news/opinions/year-our-voice-broke-fallout-failed-referendum-0
[13] Parker, Kirstie. “One year on from the voice referendum, we are less trusting and wearier than before – but we still have plenty of heart.” The Guardian, 11 October 2024. Accessed 12 December 2024, https://www.theguardian.com/commentisfree/2024/oct/11/one-year-on-from-the-voice-referendum-we-are-less-trusting-and-wearier-than-before-but-we-still-have-plenty-of-heart
[14] Aboriginal Legal Service. “Rushed knife laws will harm Aboriginal people”. Aboriginal Legal Service, 13 May 2024. Accessed 30 January 2025. https://www.alsnswact.org.au/rushed-knife-laws-will-harm-aboriginal-people
[15] McGlade, Hannah. “UN: WA Aboriginal heritage laws may breach Indigenous people’s rights under international law”. National Indigenous Times, 28 May 2024. Accessed 30 January 2025. https://nit.com.au/28-05-2024/11656/un-wa-aboriginal-heritage-laws-may-breach-indigenous-peoples-rights-under-international-law
[16] Productivity Commission. “About”. N.d. https://www.pc.gov.au/about
[17] Ombudsman, New South Wales. “About us”. https://www.ombo.nsw.gov.au/about-us
[18] See: Gately, Ian and Kendall, Belinda. “Australia”. In the Indigenous World 2022, edited by Dwayne Mamo 581-591. IWGIA, 2023. https://iwgia.org/en/australia/4686-iw-2022-australia.html
[19] Closing the Gap. “Closing the Gap Targets and Outcomes. N.d. https://www.closingthegap.gov.au/national-agreement/targets
[20] Productivity Commission. “Review of the National Agreement on Closing the Gap, Study Report”. 7 February 2024. https://www.pc.gov.au/inquiries/completed/closing-the-gap-review/report
[21] Ibid.
[22] NSW Bureau of Crime Statistics and Research. “Aboriginal over-representation in the NSW Criminal Justice System quarterly update March 2024. 26 June 2024. https://bocsar.nsw.gov.au/research-evaluations/2024/cjs-aboriginal-over-representation-quarterly-mar-2024.html
[23] NSW Bureau of Crime Statistics and Research. “National Agreement on Closing the Gap”. N.d. https://bocsar.nsw.gov.au/topic-areas/aboriginal-over-representation.html
[24] Productivity Commission. “Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander adults are not overrepresented in the criminal justice system”. N.d. https://www.pc.gov.au/closing-the-gap-data/dashboard/se/outcome-area10
[25] Australian Bureau of Statistics. “Prisoners in Australia, 2024”. 19 December 2024. https://www.abs.gov.au/statistics/people/crime-and-justice/prisoners-australia/latest-release#:~:text=Media%20releases-,Key%20statistics,had%20experienced%20prior%20adult%20imprisonment
[26] NSW Bureau of Crime Statistics and Research. “Aboriginal over-representation in the NSW Criminal Justice System quarterly update March 2024.” 26 June 2024. https://bocsar.nsw.gov.au/research-evaluations/2024/cjs-aboriginal-over-representation-quarterly-mar-2024.html
[27] Productivity Commission. “Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islanders young people are not overrepresented in the criminal justice system.” N.d. https://www.pc.gov.au/closing-the-gap-data/dashboard/se/outcome-area11
[28] NSW Bureau of Crime Statistics and Research. “Aboriginal over-representation in the NSW Criminal Justice System quarterly update March 2024.” 26 June 2024. https://bocsar.nsw.gov.au/research-evaluations/2024/cjs-aboriginal-over-representation-quarterly-mar-2024.html
[29] Department of Social Services. “Meetings Target 13 to Reduce Family Violence”. 25 November 2024. https://www.dss.gov.au/closing-gap/meeting-target-13-reduce-family-violence
[30] AIHW. “Health and Wellbeing of First Nations People”. 2 July 2024. https://www.aihw.gov.au/reports/australias-health/indigenous-health-and-wellbeing
[31] AMA. “Recommendation to raise minimum age of criminal responsibility welcomed.” 23 August 2024. https://www.ama.com.au/media/recommendation-raise-minimum-age-criminal-responsibility-welcomed
[32] Kong, Christina. “Disproportionate Incarceration Rates of Indigenous Australians: A Human Rights Violation.”. Terra Science and Education 6 (2024): 92-98. https://terra-docs.s3.us-east-2.amazonaws.com/IJHSR/Articles/volume6-issue4/IJHSR_2024_64_92.pdf
[33] Life Without Barriers. “Australia has a long way to go on raising the age”. 6 June 2023. https://www.lwb.org.au/news/australia-has-a-long-way-to-go-on-raising-the-age/
[34] Rooney, Kieran, & Eddie, Rachel. “Age of Criminal Responsibility to be Raised in 2025 as Victorian Premier Jacinta Allan Unveils Mammoth Youth Justice Bill”. The Age, 18 June 2024. https://www.theage.com.au/politics/victoria/raise-the-age-set-for-2025-as-state-unveils-mammoth-youth-justice-bill-20240618-p5jmtj.html
[35] Human Rights Law Centre. “ACT becomes the First Jurisdiction to Raise Age to 14”. 2 November 2023. https://www.hrlc.org.au/news/2023/11/2/raise-the-age-act#:~:text=Yesterday%2C%20the%20Barr%20government%20in,will%20be%20pipelined%20into%20prison
[36] Commissioner for Children and Young People Tasmania. “2023-2024 Annual Report Tabled”. 27 November 2024. https://childcomm.tas.gov.au/2023-2024-annual-report-tabled/
[37] NSW Bureau of Crime Statistics and Research. “The Involvement of Young People Aged 10 to 13 years in the NSW Criminal Justice System”. 14 August 2024. https://bocsar.nsw.gov.au/media/2024/mr-involvement-of-young-people-nsw-bb171.html
[38] Queensland Government. “Criminal Law (Raising the Age of Responsibility) Amendment Bill 2021”. 2024. https://www.legislation.qld.gov.au/view/pdf/bill.first.exp/bill-2021-018
[39] Legal Aid WA. “Age of Criminal Responsibility”. 23 January 2025. https://www.legalaid.wa.gov.au/find-legal-answers/young-people/police-and-courts/age-criminal-responsibility#:~:text=The%20age%20of%20criminal%20responsibility,were%20doing%20the%20wrong%20thing
[40] Department of the Prime Minister and Cabinet. “Establishment of the National Commission for Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander Children and Young People”. 4 October 2024. https://ministers.pmc.gov.au/mccarthy/2024/establishment-national-commission-aboriginal-and-torres-strait-islander-children-and-young-people
[41] National Indigenous Australians Agency. “Budget 2024-25: Delivering better outcomes for First Nations people.” National Indigenous Australians Agency, 14 May 2024. https://www.niaa.gov.au/news-and-media/budget-2024-25-delivering-better-outcomes-first-nations-people
[42] ACT Government. “Human rights leader appointed as first ACT Commissioner for First Nations children.” 11 November 2023. https://www.cmtedd.act.gov.au/open_government/inform/act_government_media_releases/cheyne/2023/human-rights-leader-appointed-as-first-act-commissioner-for-first-nations-children
[43] ANTAR. “Treaty in New South Wales.” 30 April 2024. https://antar.org.au/issues/treaty/states-territories/nsw/
[44] ANTAR. “Treaty in Tasmania.” 2 August 2024. https://antar.org.au/issues/treaty/states-territories/tasmania/
[45] ANTAR. “Treaty in the Northern Territory.” 30 April 2024. https://antar.org.au/issues/treaty/states-territories/northern-territory/
[46] ANTAR. “Treaty in the Australian Capital Territory.” 6 May 2024. https://antar.org.au/issues/treaty/states-territories/act/
[47] ANTAR. “Treaty in Western Australia.” 1 May 2024. https://antar.org.au/issues/treaty/states-territories/western-australia/
[48] ANTAR. “Treaty in Queensland.” 11 September 2024. https://antar.org.au/issues/treaty/states-territories/queensland/
[49] About First Peoples – State Relations. “Treaty for Victoria.” N.d. https://www.firstpeoplesrelations.vic.gov.au/treaty
[50] Law Council of Australia. “A new legislative framework to address and protect Indigenous Cultural and Intellectual Property rights”. 11 December 2024. https://lawcouncil.au/resources/submissions/a-new-legislative-framework-to-address-and-protect-indigenous-cultural-and-intellectual-property-rights
[51] Environmental Defenders Office. “UN committee finds Australian and WA governments potentially breached racial discrimination convention”. Environmental Defenders Office. 28 May 2024. https://www.edo.org.au/2024/05/28/un-committee-finds-australian-and-wa-governments-potentially-breached-racial-discrimination-convention/
[52] McGlade, Hannah. “UN: WA Aboriginal heritage laws may breach Indigenous people’s rights under international law.” National Indigenous Times, 28 May 2024. Accessed 11 December. https://nit.com.au/28-05-2024/11656/un-wa-aboriginal-heritage-laws-may-breach-indigenous-peoples-rights-under-international-law
[53] NACCHO. “4 November 2024.”, NACCHO Aboriginal and Torres strait Islander Health News, 4 November 2024. Accessed 11 December 2024. https://nacchocommunique.com/2024/11/04/4-november-2024/
[54] AIATSIS. “Youth Forum 2024. AIATSIS, 31 May 2024. Accessed 11 December 2024. https://aiatsis.gov.au/whats-new/events/youth-forum-2024
[55]CACYP. “OUR SAAY Public Speaking Competition”. CACYP, N.d. Accessed 11 December 2024. https://cacyp.com.au/oursaay/our-saay-2024/
[56] Paul Ramsay Foundation. “National Indigenous Youth Education Coalition (NIYEC)”. Paul Ramsay Foundation, N.d. Accessed 11 December 2024. https://www.paulramsayfoundation.org.au/partners/national-indigenous-youth-education-coalition-niyec
[57] Australian Curriculum. “Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander Histories and Cultures (Version 8.4)”. Australian Curriculum, N.d. 11 December 2024. https://www.australiancurriculum.edu.au/f-10-curriculum/cross-curriculum-priorities/aboriginal-and-torres-strait-islander-histories-and-cultures/
[58] Deakin University. “Indigenous Knowledge Systems Lab”. Deakin University, N.d. Accessed 11 December 2024. https://www.deakin.edu.au/faculty-of-arts-and-education/research/indigenous-knowledge-systems-lab
[59] Government of South Australia. “Pilot program gives Aboriginal young people new pathway into employment”. Government of South Australia, 10 October 2024. Accessed 11 December 2024. https://dhs.sa.gov.au/news/2024/pilot-program-gives-aborginal-young-people-new-pathway-to-employment
[60] Hofschneider, Anita. “Your guide to the 2024 UN Permanent Forum on Indigenous Issues”. High Country News, 15 April 2024. Accessed 11 December 2024. https://www.hcn.org/articles/your-guide-to-the-2024-un-permanent-forum-on-indigenous-issues/
[61] CACYP. “Global call for action on Aboriginal child removals in Australia: joint media release”. CACYP, N.d. Accessed 11 December 2024. https://cacyp.com.au/global-call-for-action-on-aboriginal-child-removals-in-australia/
Tags: Youth, Global governance, Human rights, Cultural Integrity
