The Indigenous World 2026: Japan
The two Indigenous Peoples of Japan, the Ainu and the Ryūkyūans (or Okinawans), live on the northernmost and southernmost islands of the country’s archipelago.
The Ainu territory stretches from Sakhalin and the Kuril Islands (now both Russian territories) to the northern part of present-day Japan, including the entire island of Hokkaido. Hokkaido was unilaterally incorporated into the Japanese state in 1869. Although most Ainu still live in Hokkaido, over the second half of the 20th century, tens of thousands migrated to Japan’s urban centres for work and to escape the more prevalent discrimination on Hokkaido. Since June 2008, the Ainu have been officially recognized as an Indigenous people of Japan. The most recent government surveys put the Ainu population in Hokkaido at 11,450 (2023) and in the rest of Japan at 210 (2011), although experts estimate the actual population to be much higher.
The Ryūkyūans (Okinawans) live in the Ryūkyū Archipelago, which constitutes what is now known as “Okinawa Prefecture” in Japan. Okinawa is the largest and most populated island of the archipelago. The Ryūkyūans have unique cultural characteristics and are composed of six major Indigenous language groups.[1] In 1879, Japan annexed the Ryūkyū Islands to Japanese territory and established “Okinawa Prefecture”. After World War II, the Ryūkyū Islands were relinquished to the U.S. military in exchange for Japanese independence, returning to Japanese sovereignty in 1972. Today, approximately 1.45 million people live in Okinawa Prefecture. The Japanese government still does not recognize the Ryūkyū people as an Indigenous group in Japan and the proportion of Indigenous peoples among the total population of Ryūkyūs is difficult to estimate. A significant part of Okinawa Island is occupied by U.S. Army and Japanese Defense Forces’ military installations.
Japan has adopted the UN Declaration on the Rights of Indigenous Peoples (UNDRIP) – although it does not recognize the unconditional right to self-determination. It has not ratified ILO Convention 169.
This article is part of the 40th edition of The Indigenous World, a yearly overview produced by IWGIA that serves to document and report on the developments Indigenous Peoples have experienced. Find The Indigenous World 2026 in full here
Ainu
The topic of peace and security for the Ainu people is one that entails ongoing challenges to rights and recognition. Although, unlike their Indigenous brethren in other countries, threats to physical safety such as ethnic strife, militarization or hate-related violent crimes are virtually non-existent for the Ainu, the peace-of-mind that would accompany a culturally-safe living environment and free access to the resources necessary for maintenance and development of Ainu cultural and social practices remains curtailed by a lack of free-and-unlimited access to Ainu land and resources. Additionally, Ainu continue to be subject to distress and anxiety both as a result of hate speech, and as a consequence of a lack of coverage in public education of such unresolved histories as suppression of their culture and language and the issue of their unrepatriated ancestral remains. Moreover, in 2025, the matter of free, prior and informed consent in regard to nuclear energy and nuclear waste disposal was a further issue on the table.
Legal and social developments surrounding the Ainu
One of the largest disappointments for Ainu interested in achieving policy gains in 2025 was a 13 December announcement by the Japanese Cabinet that, despite the Cabinet itself having conducted 20 hearings in line with a legally mandated review with Ainu in various locations in Hokkaido, the Japanese government would not be revising the Ainu Policy Promotion Act (APPA). This was despite an in-house advocacy gathering held at the Diet building in May 2024,[2] a meeting by two Ainu organizations with Cabinet bureaucrats in Tokyo in June 2025[3] to discuss Ainu demands, and an end-of-November joint statement by four Ainu organizations.[4]
Furthermore, the ineffectiveness of the existing APPA’s Article 4 (Prohibition of Discrimination) in preventing hate speech came under the spotlight when Sapporo City approved a civilian exhibition in the crowded Sapporo Underground Shopping Arcade whereby panel displays effectively turned history on its head by arguing that the Ainu were not an Indigenous people entitled to any special interest rights but that it was rather the ethnic Japanese who had civilized them.[5] Officials of the Ainu Association of Hokkaido were consequently quick to point out the shortcomings of Article 4 at a meeting of the Council on Ainu Policy accompanying the 13 December policy announcement,[6] and other advocacy groups are planning to release protest statements against the government inaction.
Meanwhile, progress on surveys regarding the potential construction of nuclear waste storage facilities in Hokkaido has proceeded without consultation with the Ainu,[7] and Hokkaido Governor Suzuki has approved the restarting of the Tomari nuclear facility, also without consulting them.[8]
Ongoing Ainu advocacy
Regardless of the challenges and setbacks, Ainu cultural and legal activism has continued.
In 2025, the Shimin Gaikou Centre (Citizens' Diplomatic Centre for the Rights of Indigenous Peoples), a Japanese association advocating for the rights of Indigenous Peoples in Japan and abroad, organized two advocacy events as part of the Indigenous Navigator project to highlight the situation of Indigenous Peoples in Japan. The first event, held in March at the Parliamentary Museum of the National Diet (the Parliament of Japan) and co-organized with AinuToday and ERD-Net (the NGO Network for the Elimination of Racial Discrimination), focused on the Indigenous rights situation of Ainu communities in Hokkaido and the Indigenous Navigator surveys with them. The second event, held in October, brought together Ryukyuan and Ainu representatives to reflect on their engagement with United Nations human rights mechanisms. Both events attracted significant interest from Japanese politicians and civil society representatives.
While not an independent Ainu institution, the National Ainu Museum celebrated its fifth anniversary by ushering in Ainu, Mr. Nomoto Masahiro, as its first Ainu Director[9] in July, and it has announced plans[10] to hold Japan’s first international symposium on Indigenous museums in February 2026.
In September, Biratori Town and the Biratori Ainu Association jointly sponsored a five-day international symposium on Indigenous cultural maintenance, which included discussion of Indigenous rights. This was attended by 50 Indigenous representatives from six countries and regions.[11]
In October, the Ainu had the honour of holding the 10th International Jew’s Harp Congress, thereby drawing Japanese attention to worldwide similarities in musical culture reflected in this Indigenous instrument.[12] On 26 November, Ainu musician and artist Oki Kano was awarded the Japan Association of Audiovisual Producers’ Excellence in Planning Award for his debut documentary film about the life of a Hokkaido Ainu family, “Ainu in Everyday Attire”.[13],[14]
Gains in Japanese society
Despite the absence of gains on the legal front in 2025, several indicators of potential positive social developments occurred. Firstly, in September, in conjunction with the repatriation of the remains of 35 individuals to Ainu in the City of Otaru, Tokyo University issued an official apology to the Ainu people for previous misdoings with regard to Ainu ancestral remains.[15] Secondly, in December, the three academic societies: the Japanese Society of Cultural Anthropology, the Japanese Archaeological Association, and the Anthropological Society of Nippon, issued public statements condemning hate speech, and two of them simultaneously delivered official apologies to the Ainu for the excesses of past academic research.[16] Finally, in advance of the final hearing of the Raporo Ainu Nation litigation scheduled for 4 February 2026, in September the presiding judge in the Raporo trial made an onsite visit to the mouth of the Urahoro Tokachi River to attend and observe the welcoming ceremony for the first spawning salmon.[17] While the final verdict is yet to be decided, the fact that a judge would make an onsite visit is a rare occurrence in the Japanese legal field and may have positive implications for the verdict, forecast to be delivered in July 2026.
Expectations for 2026
While hard-fought battles regarding the APPA ended unfruitfully, Ainu activists have by no means given up the struggle for Ainu Indigenous rights, and negotiations are expected to continue on multiple fronts and at various venues. In August 2025, the MIP Movement[18] was launched through the formation of the Ainu Mosir no Kai as a parent organization. Like the Raporo Litigation, the MIP Movement intends to use the absence of treaties or other deeds regarding Ainu land, resources and cultural rights to negotiate for obtaining these rights, first through efforts at direct negotiation, and then, should this prove fruitless, subsequently, via the courts.
Meanwhile, as Hokkaido University approaches its “150th Anniversary” in August 2026, and following the official apology by Tokyo University, Hokkaido University Chancellor Houkin Kiyohiro has publicly declared that he will soon be making a statement regarding the university’s relationship with the Ainu people.[19] Given the university’s involvement in the colonization of Ainu lands and its ongoing public influence to this day, the statement could have major ramifications for the betterment of Ainu social and economic conditions.
Ryūkyūans (Okinawans)
Continued militarization of the Ryūkyūs
A series of joint U.S.-Japan military exercises occurred in the Ryūkyū Islands in 2025.
The “Iron Fist” exercise, aimed at simulating the recapture of remote islands, was conducted in Kin Town on Okinawa Island from February to March.[20] Additionally, in September, alongside the Japan Self-Defense Force (JSDF), the U.S. military conducted military drills known as “Resolute Dragon” on Okinawa Island, Ishigaki Island, and Miyako Island, all part of the Ryūkyūs. The Okinawa Prefectural Government appealed to the Defense Bureau to limit the disruption to local residents and seek their consent for training exercises.[21] Despite public opposition, including protests, the U.S. military and JSDF however proceeded with their operations.[22],[23]
In August, the Okinawa Defense Bureau, a structure of the Ministry of Defense of Japan, informed Okinawa Prefecture of the indefinite retention of unmanned warships at Naha Military Port, without prior notice.[24],[25]
In October, to address the ongoing problem of sexual abuse committed by U.S. military personnel, the U.S. military undertook its first solo patrol in Naha City. The deployment of military police in civilian contexts has been met with criticism by the public. In November, U.S. soldiers detained a non-military foreign civilian during the patrol in Okinawa City. The incident was captured on video, and disseminated via social media. In the recording, military police officers slammed the man to the ground. The detained man is seen inquiring as to whether the U.S. military police were also authorized to detain Japanese individuals for failing to present identification, to which the U.S. military police responded affirmatively.[26] After acknowledging the wrongful detention of a civilian, the U.S. military announced a temporary suspension of independent U.S. military police patrols.[27]
Meanwhile in November, at Oura Bay in Henoko, the new U.S. military base construction site, the Defense Bureau launched full-scale land reclaiming operations for the base. Despite continued significant opposition to the establishment of the new U.S. military base in Henoko, the Japanese government continues to dismiss the concerns of civilians.[28]
Violence against women by U.S. military personnel
In March 2025, Ryūkyūan women reported U.S. military violence against women at the UN Commission on the Status of Women (CSW).[29] Two Okinawa Christian University students stated that, since 1945, the U.S. military presence had endangered human rights through various incidents such as U.S. military helicopter crashes, falling parts accidents, and sexual assault cases.
In April, Okinawa Prefecture urged the U.S. military to enforce discipline after a service member was accused of sexual assault.[30] This incident involved a male U.S. Marine sexually assaulting a woman on a military base and injuring another. In response, the Okinawa Prefectural Assembly unanimously passed a resolution condemning the incident and calling for preventive measures and a review of the Status of Forces Agreement (SOFA).[31] The U.S. Department of Defense reported that, from 2013 to 2020, nearly half of the 2,070 sexual violence incidents at military bases in Japan occurred in Okinawa (949 cases [45.8%]).[32] This underscores the concentration of human rights violations against the Ryūkyūan people in Japan.
In December, it was publicly revealed that the Naha District Public Prosecutor’s Office had decided not to indict two U.S. soldiers accused of sexual assault on Okinawa Island in May and June.[33] The Office justified its decision by emphasizing the importance of safeguarding the victims' dignity and privacy.
Cultural suppression and appropriation
Japanese oppression of Ryūkyūan cultural traditions continues. In August, the Japan High School Baseball Federation admonished Okinawa Shogaku High School for using the Chondarā cheer during the National High School Baseball Championship semifinals.[34],[35] Chondarā is rooted in Eisa dance and holds significant cultural relevance for the Ryūkyūan people. The Federation explained the reason for the warning as “calling for restraint on face painting and ethnic costumes”. However, it allowed Japanese high school cheer squads to wear Japanese traditional garment, such as the hakama (skirt-like pants, typically worn over a kimono).[36] Shogaku subsequently ceased the use of the Chondarā cheer in the finals.
Moreover, the JSDF was scheduled to participate in the annual All-Island Eisa Festival in September 2025. Established in 1956 to promote postwar recovery, this festival features local youth demonstrating their skills.[37],[38] Local citizens and assembly members expressed concerns to the mayor and the JSDF, arguing that their involvement contradicted the festival's peace-oriented ethos amidst military expansion, particularly on Nansei Islands.[39] They requested the cancellation of the JSDF’s performance but this request was ignored and the JSDF performed. Some Okinawa Prefectural Assembly members labelled it as “discrimination against the JSDF” and proposed a resolution to the Prefectural Assembly demanding an end to discriminatory attitudes toward the JSDF personnel and their families. On 8 October, the resolution passed with a majority vote.[40]
Ancestral remains
In March, Japanese newspaper Ryūkyū Shimpō awarded the “Higashionna Kanjun Prize” to the Japanese anthropologist, Naomi Doi. The Higashionna Kanjun Prize recognizes notable contributions to Ryūkyū studies. The award was conferred upon Doi for her analysis of ancient human bones, illuminating the Ryūkyū Islands' people. Doi is an apprentice of Takeo Kanesaki, who infamously appropriated Ryūkyūan remains in the 1920s. Doi's research focuses on Ryūkyūan remains from wind burial sites, which she frames as inquiries into the Japanese people's origins.[41] The Nirai Kanai nu Kai, an association that advocates for the repatriation of Ryūkyūan remains, publicly criticized the award to a colonialist researcher, deeming it an insult to Indigenous communities.[42] Despite submitting over 200 signatures from various Indigenous groups, such as Ainu and Kanaka (Hawai’i), the Ryūkyū Shimpō declined to revoke the award to Doi. Inquiries directed by Nirai Kanai nu Kai and its individual members at Doi and the selection committee received no replies.[43]
In May, it was disclosed that Kyoto University transferred Ryūkyūan remains from the Mumu Jana tomb to the Nakijin Village Board of Education, contingent upon preservation as academic materials rather than returning them to descendants.[44] No prior notification was issued to the descendants or plaintiffs involved in the lawsuit for the remains' repatriation. The Nirai Kanai nu Kai conducted a memorial service at the Nakijin Village History Center and consulted with the center's director, requesting to have the remains returned to their original burial site. The request was denied by the director who thus affirmed adherence to the agreement with Kyoto University.[45]
On 7 November, Kyoto University suddenly announced a list of Ryūkyūan ancestral remains and return guidelines on its website.[46],[47] There was no communication or apology directed towards descendants or plaintiffs involved in repatriation lawsuits. The guidelines indicate that unidentified remains will be transferred upon local government request, yet 106 sets remain unidentified.[48] Yasukatsu Matsushima, co-representative of the Nirai Kanai nu Kai association, called for an apology and the return of the remains from Kyoto University. The university nevertheless dismissed the association’s status and declined to apologize.
On 12 December, the University of Tokyo published a list of Ryūkyūan remains in its possession.[49],[50] However, descendants and plaintiffs in the repatriation lawsuit were not informed of this either, and there was no apology or explanation regarding repatriation or transfer. [51] In response, Mr. Matsushima, co-representative of the Nirai Kanai nu Kai, sent a protest letter to the University of Tokyo, demanding an apology and the return of all Ryūkyūan remains.[52] As of 27 December 2025, there had been no response from the University of Tokyo.
Jeff Gayman is a full Professor in the School of Education and Research Faculty of Media and Communication at Hokkaido University where his research focuses on issues of empowerment of the Ainu in educational arenas. He has been engaged in support of Ainu rights advocacy for close to 20 years.
Dr. Kanako Uzawa, PhD is an Ainu scholar, artist, museum curator, and advocate dedicated to amplifying Indigenous voices worldwide. As the founder of AinuToday and CEO of K. Uzawa Consult, she bridges academic and public platforms to celebrate Indigenous identity. She is also an Assistant Professor at the Global Station for Indigenous Studies and Cultural Diversity at Hokkaido University and an affiliated researcher at the Historical Museum of the University of Oslo.
Ryoko Nakamura is an Indigenous Ryukyuan. Co-chair of the Nirai Kanai nu Kai, a campaign group for the repatriation of remains of Ryukyuan people stolen by Japanese researchers. In addition, she is involved in the campaign against the Japanese military (the Japan Self-Defense Force) and U.S. military bases.
Dr. Risako Sakai (she/her/hers) collaborated in translating the section on Ryūkyūans. She is originally from Okinawa and is currently a postdoctoral researcher at Cornell University, USA. Her research interests include rematriation, Indigenous feminism, and Indigenous and decolonizing methodologies.
This article is part of the 40th edition of The Indigenous World, a yearly overview produced by IWGIA that serves to document and report on the developments Indigenous Peoples have experienced. Find The Indigenous World 2026 in full here
Notes and references
[1] Ryūkyū Shimpo. 2013. “‘Revival of Ryūkyūan Languages’ Shimakutouba Aims to Restore Status.” Ryūkyū Shimpo Digital. Ryūkyū Shimpo. 12 May 2013. https://Ryūkyūshimpo.jp/news/prentry-206478.html
[2] See IWGIA, 2025.The Indigenous World, 2025. Copenhagen: The International Work Group for Indigenous Affairs, for details on the first apology in 2025 by the Japanese Society for Cultural Anthropology.
[3] Kihara, Ikuko. “Heit e no Bassoku Sura Nai Ainu Hou ‘Go-nen de Minaosu’ Yakusoku wa? ‘Kanryo To-ku” ga Kaisei wo Matu Hitobito no Ikari wo Katta’ (Ainu Law Lacking Even Punishment for Hate Speech What has Become of Promise to ‘Review Law after Five Years’? ’Bureaucratic Drivel” Draws Anger of Those Waiting for Revision’).” Tokyo Shimbun Press, 13 June 2025. https://www.tokyo-np.co.jp/article/411334 Accessed 11 January 2025.
[4] Citizens’ Alliance for the Examination of Ainu Policy (in collaboration with Raporo Ainu Nation/Shibechari Ainu Tribe, Shosuu Minzoku Kondankai), 25 November 2025. “Ainu Shisaku Suishinhou no Minaosi ni Kansuru Kyouryoku no Yousei (Request for Assistance in the Review of the Ainu Policy Promotion Act).” https://ainupolicy.jimdofree.com/blog-008/#gsc.tab=0 Accessed 18 January 2025.
[5] Koizumi Masahiro. “Hokkaido ni Okeru Datsushokuminchika no Kadai (“The Issues Involved in Decolonizing Hokkaido”).” IMADR Newsletter 224, 21 November 2025. https://imadr.net/newsletter/no-224/p2/ Accessed 11 January 2025.
[6] Takagi Noriko, Mutou Satomi. “Ainu Minzoku Sabetsu, Bassoku ni Kawaru Yokushisaku Shimesazu Shinpou Kaisei Miokuri Binjoku Toukou, Genjyou wa Nobashi (Alternative Deterrent Measure Toward Ainu Discrimination not Indicated Revision of Ainu New Law Postponed Situation of Insulting SNS Remarks Left Unchecked).” Hokkaido Shimbun Press, 13 December 2025. https://www.hokkaido-np.co.jp/article/1251991/?fbclid=IwY2xjawPQYHlleHRuA2FlbQIxMABicmlkETFXMElVN0FBVXRWR3dUYzhsc3J0YwZhcHBfaWQQMjIyMDM5MTc4ODIwMDg5MgABHqzgEOl-e-VcZBNUH5XFmcl7bBy51GEC6S8YYxVZZMe9YN79_mb6idZTGQQ6_aem_S0PS32WOEGaAlcuAYwZupA Accessed 11 January 2025.
[7] “Statement for Agenda Item 3, Study and advice on the right of Indigenous Peoples to data, including data collection and disaggregation.” 14 July 2025, EMRIP 18th Session (2025) Speaker: Yukihito YAEGASHI (Ainu, the Rehe lsam / Shimin Gaikou Centre) https://www.facebook.com/watch/?v=753267710427070 Accessed 11 January 2025;
Lee, Chermaine. “Ainu land rights in crosshairs as Hokkaido communities debate nuclear waste.” The Japan Times. 6 July 2026. https://www.japantimes.co.jp/environment/2025/07/06/energy/hokkaido-ainu-nuclear-waste-storage/#:~:text=Jacopo%20Buongiorno%2C%20professor%20of%20nuclear,has%20yet%20to%20be%20determined. Accessed 11 January 2026.
[8] However, it should be noted that unlike Ainu involvement in protest gatherings in November 2021, this time the Ainu publicly raised no opposition to the notion of the resumption of nuclear energy production in Hokkaido.
[9] National Ainu Museum. “Appointment of New Director of the National Ainu Museum.” 23 July 2025. https://nam.go.jp/en/2025/07/23/nam-executivedirector2025/ Accessed 11 January 2025.
[10] National Ainu Museum. “Inaugural International Indigenous Museum Symposium to be held at the National Ainu Museum.” 5 November 2025. https://nam.go.jp/en/2025/11/05/symposium260207/ Accessed 11 January 2025.
[11] NHK World Japan. “Indigenous Peoples Unite Toward the Future.” Japan International Broadcasting, Inc., 12 December 2025. https://biz.jibtv.com/programs/indigenous_peoples_unite_toward_the_future/ Accessed 11 January 2025.
[12] Kyodo Tsushin News. “Nihon Hatsu, Higashi Ajia Hatsu Kaisai! Sekai no Onshoku ga, Akan ni Atsumaru. Akanko Ainu Kotan Nite Kokusai Koukin Taikai Kaisai (First Ever Time Held in Japan and East Asia! International Mouth Harp Congress to be Held at Lake Akan Ainu Kotan).” 9 June 2025. https://www.kyodo.co.jp/pr/2025-06-09_3941634/ Accessed 11 January 2026.
[13] Film Ainu in Everyday Attire. Bing 動画 Accessed 6 February 2026.
[14] Hokkaido Shimbun Press Hidaka Edition. “Shiraoi de Jyoeichuu ‘Fudangi no Ainu’ Eibunren Yuushuukikakusho ni (Film ‘Ainu in Everday Attire’ Wins Japan Association of Audiovisual Producers’ “Excellence in Planning Award”). 12 December 2025.
[15] Asahi Shimbun Press. “Toudai ga Shazai, Ainu Nado no Ikotsu Shushu de ‘Songen wo Fukaku Kizu Tsuketa’ (Tokyo University Apologizes Admits that Collection of Ainu and Other Peoples Human Remains “Deeply Damaged Dignity).” 17 October 2025. https://www.asahi.com/articles/ASTBK1CPXTBKUTIL02TM.html Accessed 18 January 2018
[16] Hokkaido Shimbun Press. “Gakujyutsu San Dantai Hantai Seimei Ikotsu Shushu Shazai Mo (Three Academic Societies Issue Statements Against Hate Speech Also Issue Apology for Collection of Human Remains).” 16 December 2025. https://www.hokkaido-np.co.jp/article/1252466/?fbclid=IwY2xjawPZaIBleHRuA2FlbQIxMABicmlkETFONkR0ZEVmS3pDVGZXSDNzc3J0YwZhcHBfaWQQMjIyMDM5MTc4ODIwMDg5MgABHtdSAhMLKecsQpm1_lxRDQQ0HnFOhNea7_Lj5om3x6Xp0ACzlLimPYhbJ74P_aem_nB4XQeru7D2SS2Imj_SjhQ Accessed 18 January 2025.
As above, the Japanese Society of Cultural Anthropology had already delivered an official apology in April 2024.
[17] Asahi Shimbun Press. “Bengodan ‘Kenri to Hodo Tooi, Jikkan Site’ Saibankan ga Gisiki wo Sinsatsu Site (Legal Counsel: ‘Obtain an Actual Sense for How Far Removed the Situation is from One of Possessing Rights’ Presiding Judge Inspects Ceremony on Site).” 8 September 2025. https://www.asahi.com/articles/AST974FX2T97IIPE008M.html?msockid=3c661433cd2669f52e141f50ccac684d Accessed 18 January 2026.
[18] MIP combines the initials of three Ainu words: mosir (land), itak (language) and puri (Ainu customs, Ainu way of doing things) that symbolize what the Ainu are striving to reclaim.
[19] Asahi Shimbun Press Newspaper. “Hokkaidodai ni Houkin Kiyohiro-shi Saisen Ainu Jinkotsu Mondai ‘Nanraka na Happyou suru’ (Houkin Kiyohiro Re-elected as Hokkaido University Chancellor. ‘Will Issue Some Kind of Statement’ on the Ainu Human Remains Problem).” 13 November 2025. https://www.asahi.com/articles/ASTCF14V2TCFIIPE00LM.html Accessed 11 January 2025.
[20] Ryūkyū Asahi Broadcasting Corporation News Department. 2025. “‘Iron Fist’ Training Exercise Simulating the Recapture of Remote Islands Was Opened to the Press.” QAB NEWS Headline, 2 March 2025. https://www.qab.co.jp/news/20250302241907.html
[21] Ryūkyū Shimpo 2025. “Japan Ground Self-Defense Force and U.S. Forces Begin ‘Resolute Dragon’ Training Exercise; 19,000 Participants in Naha.” Ryūkyū Shimpo Digital, 11 September 2025. https://Ryūkyūshimpo.jp/politics/entry-4605590.html
[22] Okinawa Times Plus. “Japan-U.S. Training: Citizens Protest Starting Today at Ground Self-Defense Force Katsuren Base.” Okinawa Times Plus, 11 September 2025. https://www.okinawatimes.co.jp/articles/-/1667964
[23] Okinawa Times Plus. 2025. “‘Don’t Turn Miyako Island into a Battlefield’ Citizens Block Delivery of Ground Self-Defense Force Vehicles Protest against Japan-U.S. Joint Training Emergency Vehicles Head to Ishigaki.” Okinawa Times Plus. 14 September 2025. https://www.okinawatimes.co.jp/articles/-/1670170
[24] Okinawa Television Broadcasting. “Marine Corps Unmanned Boats to Be Deployed Indefinitely at Naha Military Port: Defense Bureau Notifies Prefecture.” OKITIVE, 6 August 2025. https://www.otv.co.jp/okitive/news/post/00014015/index.html
[25] Inafuku, Masatoshi and Meishin, Nanto. “In-Depth: Started as ‘Temporary’… Gradually Became ‘Indefinite’ US Military’s Latest Weapons Deployed Successively to Okinawa Unmanned Vessels Deployed at Naha Military Port.” Ryūkyū Shimpo Digital, 7 August 2025. https://Ryūkyūshimpo.jp/politics/entry-4522224.html
[26] McElhiney, Brian. 2025. “US Military Acknowledges ‘mistake’ in US Civilian’s Arrest on Okinawa Street.” Stars and Stripes, 12 December 2025. https://www.stripes.com/theaters/asia_pacific/2025-12-11/el-okinawa-military-police-patrols-usfj-20064186.html
[27] Okinawa Times. 2025. “U.S. Forces Admit Mistake in Detaining Civilians; Suspend Solo Patrols in Okinawa: Kyodo News.” Okinawa Times Plus, 17 December 2025. https://www.okinawatimes.co.jp/articles/-/1737152
[28] Okinawa Times. 2025. “‘The Feeling That the Base Is Encroaching on Our Community,’ ‘a Waste of Taxpayer Money’ Residents Dismayed as Construction Gradually Advances Dredged Material Dumped into New Area of Oura Bay.” Okinawa Times Plus, 29 November 2025. https://www.okinawatimes.co.jp/articles/-/1724045
[29] Ryūkyū Shimpo Morning Edition. 2025. “Call for Action for a Peaceful Okinawa Bases, Sexual Violence: Appeal at the UN Kirigakuen University’s Ayaka Tokuda and Akira Matsuda.” Ryūkyū Shimpo Digital, April 11, 2025. https://Ryūkyūshimpo.jp/news/national/entry-4141468.html.
[30] ANNnewsCH. 2025. “Okinawa Governor Tamaki: ‘This Must Never Happen Again...’ Submits Request to U.S. Military over Suspected Non-Consensual Intercourse; U.S. Servicemember Referred for Prosecution.” YouTube, 24 April 2025. https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=Gv-j7BD7jhI
[31] Ryūkyū Asahi Broadcasting Corporation, News Production Bureau. 2025. “Prefectural Assembly Passes Resolution Protesting U.S. Military Incident.” QAB NEWS Headline, 9 May 2025. https://www.qab.co.jp/news/20250509249741.html
[32] Ishii, Erika. 2025. “Sex crimes at U.S. military bases in Japan: About half, 949 cases, occurred in Okinawa, U.S. Department of Defense survey.” Ryūkyū Shimpo Digital, 20 October 2025. https://Ryūkyūshimpo.jp/news/national/entry-4708349.html
[33] Ryūkyū Asahi Broadcasting Corporation, News Production Bureau. 2025. “Two U.S. Soldiers Referred to Prosecutors on Suspicion of Non-Consensual Sexual Intercourse, etc. District Prosecutors Decide Not to Prosecute.” QAB NEWS Headline, 16 December 2025. https://www.qab.co.jp/news/20251216276515.html
[34] Okinawa Times. 2025. “Japan High School Baseball Federation Warns Against ‘Chongdara’ Cheering at Koshien Stadium: ‘Refrain from Face Painting and Ethnic Costumes’; Okinawa Shogaku Side Cancels Plan for Final.” Okinawa Times + Plus, 27 August 2025. https://www.okinawatimes.co.jp/articles/-/1657214
[35] Matayoshi, Karei. 2025. “Is Okinawan Cheering Not Allowed? Confused Alumni: ‘We Performed Our Tradition’—Eisa Ban in '94, Koshien Cheering Restrictions.” Okinawa Times + Plus, 27 August 2025. https://www.okinawatimes.co.jp/articles/-/1657262
[36] Yoshida, Kenichi. 2025. “Japan High School Baseball Federation cautions Okinawa Shogaku over ‘face paint’ support for Chondala; permits other schools' hakama attire in Koshien semifinals.” Ryūkyū Shimpo Digital, 28 August 2025. https://Ryūkyūshimpo.jp/news/national/entry-4568113.html
[37] Okinawa TV. 2025. “Okinawa All-Island Eisa Festival: Group Formed by Prefectural Assembly Members and Citizens Protests Ground Self-Defense Force Performance.” OKITIVE, 8 September 2025. https://www.otv.co.jp/okitive/news/post/00014223/index.html
[38] Naka, Isshin. 2025. “Citizen Group Requests 15th Brigade to Withdraw Ground Self-Defense Force Participation in Okinawa Island Eisa Festival.” Ryūkyū Shimpo Digital, 10 September 2025. https://Ryūkyūshimpo.jp/news/national/entry-4600704.html
[39] Nansei Islands (Southwest Islands) is a Japanese term for the Ryūkyū Islands. The term is widely rejected by the Ryūkyūans.
[40] Ryūkyū Asahi Broadcasting Corporation, News Production Bureau. 2025. “Resolution to End Discriminatory Trends Against Self-Defense Forces Personnel and Their Families Passes Prefectural Assembly.” QAB NEWS Headline, 8 October 2025. https://www.qab.co.jp/news/20251008268741.html
[41] Matsushiam, Yasukatsu. 2025. “Essay: Kyoto University and Japanese Imperialism 4 (Part 2).” Magazine “Ryūkyū, September 2025 (No. 108): 145–151.
[42] Nirai Kanai nu Kai Co-Representative Yasukatsu Matsushima's X post on 31 March 2025.
https://x.com/matusima3455/status/1906524034533302759
[43] Nirai Kanai nu Kai Co-Founder Yasukatsu Matsushima's X post on 20 April 2025. https://x.com/matusima3455/status/1913733366324822506
[44] Okinawa Times. 2025. “Kyoto University Returns Ryūkyūan Human Remains Taken from Hyakunajisō Tomb to Nakijin Board of Education on Condition They Be Preserved, Not Buried.” Okinawa Times + Plus, 30 May 2025. https://www.okinawatimes.co.jp/articles/-/1593611
[45] Okinawa Times. 2025. “Members of the Nirai Kanai nu Kai bowing their heads in prayer for the transferred remains.” Okinawa Times + Plus, 26 June 2025. https://www.okinawatimes.co.jp/
[46] Kyoto University. N.d. “Guidelines for the Return Procedure of Human Bone Materials at Kyoto University.” Kyoto University. Accessed 29 December 2025. https://www.kyoto-u.ac.jp/ja/about/foundation/other/provide
[47] Kyoto University. N.d. “To ensure the proper use of valuable research funds December 2025 Research Fund Usage Handbook.” Accessed 28 December 2025. https://www.kyoto-u.ac.jp/sites/default/files/inline-files/handbook-R7-Ja-e6eb726f022584cdc37b2cb696f16e51.pdf
[48] Okinawa TV. 2025. “Kyoto University Holds 106 Sets of Human Remains Taken from Okinawa for Research Purposes Before the War; Guidelines for Repatriation Talks.” OKITIVE, 12 November 2025. https://www.otv.co.jp/okitive/news/post/00014679/index.html
[49] University of Tokyo. 2025. “Regarding Human Remains from Okinawa Prefecture Held by the University of Tokyo (Report).” University of Tokyo, 12 December 2025. https://www.u-tokyo.ac.jp/focus/ja/articles/z1304_00160.html
[50] University of Tokyo. 2025. “Report on Human Remains from Okinawa Prefecture Held by the University of Tokyo.” The University of Tokyo, 18 December 2025. https://www.u-tokyo.ac.jp/content/400276434.pdf
[51] Okinawa Times. 2025. “Editorial: Ryūkyū Ancestral Remains at Tokyo University: Dialogue with Local Communities Needed for Repatriation.” Okinawa Times + Plus, 14 December 2025. https://www.okinawatimes.co.jp/articles/-/1734734
[52] Okinawa Times. 2025. “Citizen Group Leader Matsushima Protests to University of Tokyo Over Remains Storage, Demands Apology.” Okinawa Times + Plus, 18 December 2025. https://www.okinawatimes.co.jp/articles/-/1740208
