The Indigenous World 2023: Nepal
The preliminary results of the national census of 2021 revealed that the total population of Nepal is 29,192,480, being 51.04% female and 48.96% male. The Central Bureau of Statistics (CBS) has not yet revealed the census results relating to caste, ethnicity, language and religion.[1]According to the 2011 census, the Indigenous Nationalities (Indigenous Peoples) of Nepal comprise 36% of the total population of 30.2 million,[2] although Indigenous Peoples’ organizations claim a higher figure of more than 50%. The 2011 census listed the population as belonging to 125 caste and ethnic groups, including 63 Indigenous Peoples; 59 castes, including 15 Dalit castes;[3] and three religious groups, including Muslims.
Even though Indigenous Peoples constitute a significant proportion of the population, throughout the history of Nepal, Indigenous Peoples have been systematically discriminated, marginalized, excluded, subjugated, dominated, exploited and internally-colonized by the dominant caste groups in terms of land, territories, resources, language, culture, customary laws, political and economic opportunities and collective way of life.
The new Constitution of Nepal promulgated in 2015 recognizes Khas Arya[4] supremacy but denies the collective rights and aspirations of Indigenous Peoples,[5] this is despite the fact that Nepal has ratified ILO Convention 169 on Indigenous and Tribal Peoples and passed the UN Declaration on the Rights of Indigenous Peoples (UNDRIP) and the World Council of Indigenous Peoples (WCIP) Outcome Document. Their implementation is still wanting. The laws, draft bills, ordinances and policies are not in line with UNDRIP and ILO Convention 169. The Nepalese government has shown no sign of implementing the recommendations, nor amending the Constitution to explicitly recognize the right to self-determination and all the rights of Indigenous women in line with the UNDRIP, as recommended by the UN Committee on the Elimination of Discrimination against Women (CEDAW).
Indigenous Peoples’ reservation of “conservation”
The Indigenous Peoples of Nepal and elsewhere in the world are the custodians/guardians/protectors of biodiversity. Nepal’s Indigenous Peoples’ model of conservation is based on their core, fundamental norms and values, which include full respect for Mother Earth, nature, cosmovision, interconnectedness and interdependence, collective decision-making, and common well-being. It is based on subsistence need not greed. Nepal’s Indigenous Peoples, like those around the world, have been protecting biodiversity from generation to generation, exercising their sovereign, universal, natural, fundamental, inalienable, indivisible human rights-based conservation approach based on principles of self-determination and non-discrimination since time immemorial.
In Nepal, all conservation models, with the exception of Indigenous Peoples’ models, are “conservation” models that ultimately destroy the lands, territories and resources of Indigenous Peoples. Some research findings have shown ongoing criminalization of Indigenous Peoples’ customary laws and self-governing institutions, suppression of Indigenous Peoples through militarization, government-induced involuntary displacements, the denial of their collective rights, restrictions on livelihood based on customary knowledge, technology, skills and practices, and Indigenous Peoples being viewed as both strangers on their own ancestral lands, and as problems rather than as a solution to conservation.[6],[7],[8],[9],[10] A human rights-based approach with meaningful respect for collective rights has therefore been advocated by Indigenous Peoples to recognize Mother Nature, traditional knowledge and livelihoods, and Indigenous Peoples’ rights.
Ongoing human rights violations in the name of conservation
According to the Department of National Parks and Wildlife Conservation, the department:
was established in 2037 BS (1980 AD) to conserve and manage wildlife and biodiversity of the country. Nepal has established a very good network of Protected Areas system with 12 National Parks, 1 Wildlife Reserve, 1 Hunting Reserve, 6 Conservation Areas, and 13 Buffer Zones extending from lowland Terai to high mountains, covering 23.39% of the total country's land, which contribute to in-situ conservation of ecosystems and biodiversity across the country. Conservation efforts made by the government of Nepal is worldwide popular and highly recognized by the international societies.[11]
Additionally, there are 19,361 Community Forests (CF) comprising 1,813,478 hectares of national forests. All these conservation areas are superimposed onto Indigenous Peoples’ ancestral lands, territories, and resources.
Human right violations in Chitwan National Park (CNP) have been documented in a Fact Finding Mission of the Lawyers’ Association for Human Rights of Nepalese Indigenous Peoples (LAHURNIP) and the National Indigenous Women's Federation (NIWF).[12] These include killings, death after alleged torture, mistreatment and sexual abuse, arbitrary detention, harassment, seizing of goods, involuntary work, verbal abuse/slandering, physical abuse, statelessness, violation of land rights, displacement, loss of traditional livelihoods, fishing and boating rights, ecological crises, violation of cultural rights, especially loss of cultural identity, sacred spaces and nature, conflicts, racism.
In a report by the Special Rapporteur (SR) on the rights of indigenous peoples, José Francisco Calí Tzay writes on “Protected areas and indigenous peoples’ rights: the obligations of States and international organizations”[13] that:
In Nepal, the Chitwan National Park was included in the World Heritage List in 1984 without the consent of the local indigenous peoples. In 2009, the then mandate holder raised concerns about the mistreatment, arbitrary detention and sexual abuse of indigenous peoples in the Park. In 2020, the SR sent a communication regarding renewed allegations of forced eviction and torture and ill-treatment of Chepang indigenous peoples in the Park. Indigenous peoples continue to be targeted for their livelihood practices, and their homes have been destroyed in retaliation for collecting resources, including medicinal herbs, within the Park. [14]
Human rights violations continue unabated
The findings of KIOS Foundation[15] and LAHURNIP in the report Impact of Dhorpatan Hunting Reserve and Chitwan National Park on Indigenous Peoples in Nepal published in 2022 states:
The restriction on the use of rangelands threatens to weaken the traditional institution of Magar through which they have been exercising their autonomy and self-determination. The socio-political system of Magar, Kachahari, which has a close association with transhumant management, spirituality, and socio-cultural practices, was under threat of extinction. With this, they have gradually been detached from the customary laws of using rangelands, life ways, and traditional governance.[16]
And:
The militarization at Dhorpatan Hunting Reserve (DHR) has caused abuses, harassment, threat, illegal arrest, and detention of the Magars. Many detainees have been illegally kept and tortured in the camps for several days without any legal processes. The DHR has criminalized the customary practices of living of local Indigenous Peoples. Thus, they have been facing intimidation and heteronomy for several years whilst adopting their customary practices of living based on natural resources.[17]
According to an unpublished report prepared by NIWF in July 2022,[18]
Chabilal Neupane, a local human rights defender and central Chairperson of the Madhyabarti Chetra Janadhikar Mahasangh-Nepal, who has been studying violations of rights by the CNP, including Nepal Army personnel, for more than two decades, has shared data of 24 cases of violations making 593 people (429 males and 164 females) victims. Of them 503 are Indigenous Peoples (365 men and women). Number of Dalit victims are 39 (31 men and 8 women) and 51 Bahun Chetri[19](35 men and 16 women)... He has documented Inhuman treatment by Chitwan National Park Administration and Buffer Zone User's Committee and Security Personnel (from January 2020 to June 2021) in 6 categories: (1) confiscation of net/ttapi, hand net, (2) arrest without any wrongdoing or committing a crime, (3) beating, (4) killing/Death, (5) Abusive words, harassment, sexual harassment, mental torture, and (6) Mental Pain due to Deprivation of Eligible Awards as per Rules & Regulations. Human rights violations have occurred in many places in Madi.
Ramesh Kumar Paudel reported in a news article published in the Kathmandu Post on 29 March 2022 that: “The Chitwan National Park on Sunday afternoon torched Kajiman Chepang’s hut in Kusumkhola in the park’s forest area. Kajiman is the same person whose hut was burnt down on July 18, 2021, for which the national park had received criticisms from various quarters.” He further writes: “This time, the park burnt down around a dozen huts in the area, including that of Kajiman, on Sunday while some other huts were demolished.” [20]
Recommendation 4, made in the report entitled Embedding Human Rights in Nature Conservation: From Intent to Action by the Independent Panel of Experts of the Independent Review of allegations raised in the media regarding human rights violations in the context of WWF’s conservation work, 17 November 2020, says: “WWF Nepal should have an independent mechanism for reviewing and considering all complaints, including those against park rangers and army personnel and those in respect of indigenous peoples’ rights and their access to local resources”.[21] The recommendation has not been meaningfully implemented yet.
Avoid using the phrase “Indigenous Peoples and local communities”
In his July 2022 report on protected areas and Indigenous Peoples’ rights, the UN Special Rapporteur on the rights of indigenous peoples, José Francisco Calí Tzay, noted that the obligations of States and international organizations had not yet been applied in Nepal. As Nepal has ratified many international laws, including ILO Convention 169, and adopted the UNDRIP and the Convention on the Elimination of Racial Discrimination (CERD), the government has duty to meaningfully implement these obligations, which it has not.
Universally, he notes that: “the use of terms or phrases such as ‘Indigenous Peoples and local communities’ should be avoided to the greatest extent possible, without undermining the situation of unrecognized Indigenous Peoples. Any use of such terms should be expressly without prejudice to the specific rights of indigenous peoples under international law.”[22]
Human rights lacking in government conservation efforts
There are many challenges in protecting and promoting human rights in conservation areas but there is a basic principle that the State should return all the lands grabbed from Indigenous Peoples in the name of conservation for the guaranteed guardianship of Indigenous Peoples, with collective ownership and control over their respective ancestral lands, territories and resources. For example:
- When conservation efforts deny Indigenous Peoples’ rights, several negative effects transpire. For example, in a 2022 interview, snow leopard expert Kamal Thapa described a particular example of the Dhorpatan Hunting Reserve:
Local [Indigenous Peoples] who have been grazing lamb and mountain goats are today not allowed to enter their own lands. Naur [also known as bharal or ‘blue sheep’] hunting is permitted and foreigners can hire a helicopter to enter the area for hunting. They spend their US dollars in Kathmandu for the helicopter ride and the capital city gets the benefits. Organizers [Travel agents in Kathmandu] take foods from the city [to the Dhorpatan Hunting Reserve] as well. Therefore, money does not come to the villages that no longer exist due to government eviction. [Former] locals receive no benefits; on the contrary, they face injustices. On top of being forced to leave their ancestral lands, they have been deprived of the potential economic benefits [had they not been forcibly evicted]. It has become a big issue. Before, there was no army, later they were posted [to ensure locals did not return]. One of the villagers told me: ‘Our own people created the mess!’ Villagers complained that the mess was created by a leader from Rukum who became Home Minister.[23]
- A Tharu Indigenous woman, Urmila Gamba Tharu, recounts in her 2022 article that the Tharu Indigenous people can no longer collect Gungi (wetland snails) as has been their tradition. Instead of people collecting around the lake, army personnel carrying guns can now be seen and villagers have begun to be arrested on charges of fishing and collecting Gungi illegally. Tharu stated that she now wonders whether she is a thief for collecting the snails and fishing the lakes and rivers as her people have done since time immemorial. “Those communities that have been guardians of nature for centuries are now branded as criminals. The spiritual relationship of Indigenous Peoples with water, forest and land is being delinked. Now, the days she laughed and enjoyed with her friends as they collected Gungi and fishing, only remain as a memory.”[24]
- Bankariya is one of the endangered Indigenous Peoples with a total of 21 households and a population of 86. Their ancestral lands, territories and resources are in the Parsa National Park and the park had previously leased them some lands for 20 years but this has now expired. A delegation of Indigenous Bankariya, including representatives of the NIWF, therefore submitted a memorandum demanding that the government give them collective ownership of their ancestral lands, territories and resources.[25]
The dominant caste groups in Nepal have difficulty understanding the interconnectedness within and between the living and non-living that Indigenous Peoples often believe in. For example, Diwakar Pyakurel, a journalist belonging to the dominant caste group Bahun, writes:[26]
Leaders of indigenous peoples and local communities in Nepal have not only talked about their environmental rights; their demands extend as far as an amendment to the constitution, which requires a wide-ranging political agreement of the parliament members, not mere bureaucrats. For example, the NIWF, in its appeal published for the biodiversity COP 15, refers to a recommendation from a UN committee monitoring the implementation of the Convention on the Elimination of All Forms of Discrimination against Women (CEDAW) and talks about ‘the lack of recognition of the rights of indigenous women in the constitution and the general lack of recognition of the right of indigenous peoples to self-determination’. Hence, it states, ‘We demand the recognition of indigenous peoples’ right to self-determination with autonomy and customary self-governing institutions… We demand the recognition of indigenous nations’ sovereignty based on the principles of parallel sovereignty.
When Indigenous Peoples think of anything, such as conservation, biodiversity, flora and fauna, land, forest, water, mines, environment, customary laws, customary self-governing institutions, Indigenous values, marriage, family, kinship, culture, spirits, ancestors, sovereignty, and future generations, these are all very much interconnected. A disturbance of one of its parts will hence have negative consequences on other parts, and ultimately on the whole. Indigenous Peoples therefore try to restore balance as soon as possible if there is a problem.
Khas Arya domination in the parliamentary election
The CERD issued two early warnings to Nepal[27],[28] with recommendations to ensure direct representation of Indigenous Peoples in the then Constituent Assembly. The Constitution of Nepal 2015, however, made no provision for such representation. Ganesh Rai, a journalist belonging to the Rai Indigenous people, reported, “The recent General Election [of 20 November 2022] for the Elected House of Representative, i.e. Lower House of the Parliament, of the total 164[29] elected parliamentarians 94 (54%) were from the dominant Khas Arya caste group, 41 (25%) from Indigenous Peoples, 28 Madhesi (27%), one (0.6%) from Dalit and none (0.0%) from Muslim.”[30] He further writes that, of the 41 elected Indigenous Peoples nine are Newar, six Tharu, five Magar, five Rai, five Gurung, and four Tamang. Although the elected members are Indigenous by birth, they do not represent Indigenous Peoples but only the political parties they run for. No political party in Nepal is working for the rights of Indigenous Peoples.
Tika R. Pradhan of the Kathmandu Post writes:
It’s been 15 years since the country embraced the proportional representation electoral system, but only a handful of groups and communities have repeatedly benefitted from the system while a large number of smaller and marginalised communities remain deprived of representation in the national legislature … according to a yet-to-be-published report of the National Inclusion Commission, a constitutional body, as many as 62 of the 126 ethnic groups have never been represented in Parliament.[31]
The 62 groups listed that have never made it to Parliament include 21 Indigenous Peoples and 12 linguistic groups of the Rai Indigenous people.[32],[33]
Formal recognition of customary institution
The government does not formally recognize the customary institutions of Indigenous Peoples. The local governments in Bardiya and Kailali districts have formally recognized the Barghar customary self-governing institution of the Tharu Indigenous people since 11 January 2021.[34],[35] In May 2022, “Jahada Rural Municipality”, a local government in Morang district, “endorsed the resolution of recognizing the customary institution of Shantal Indigenous Peoples and to establish a cultural protected area of Shantals from the 10th village assembly. We need to work further to bring the law to institutionalize the resolution.”[36]
World Bank Inspection Panel
On 3 March 2022, the World Bank Board of Executive Directors approved an Inspection Panel recommendation to investigate the Nepal-India Electricity Transmission and Trade Project and its additional financing in Nepal.[37],[38]
Krishna B. Bhattachan belongs to the Thakali Indigenous Peoples. He is one of the founding faculty members and former Head of and retired from the Department of Sociology and Anthropology at Tribhuvan University in Nepal. He is associated with the Lawyer’s Association for Human Rights of Nepalese Indigenous Peoples (LAHURNIP) as an advisor and Indigenous expert. He has published several books and articles on Indigenous issues. He is Vice Chair of the Adivasi Guthi Nepal.
This article is part of the 37th edition of The Indigenous World, a yearly overview produced by IWGIA that serves to document and report on the developments Indigenous Peoples have experienced. The photo above is of an Indigenous person in Tanzania. This photo was taken by Geneviève Rose, and is the cover of the Indigenous World 2023 where this article is featured. Find the Indigenous World 2023 in full here.
Notes and references
[1] “CBS to make detailed census report public by end of 2022.” Online Khabar, 23 December 2022, https://english.onlinekhabar.com/cbs-public-nepal-census-report-2022.html
[2] The Central Bureau of Statistics (CBS) of Nepal make population projection every day. Projected population on 15 January 2020 is 30,212,287; Nepal, Indigenous Women, https://www.gitpa.org/web/NEPAL%20en%202021%20GB%20.pdf
[3] Hindu cosmology divides the population into hereditary caste groups who are ranked according to ritual purity and impurity. The Dalit castes form the lowest tier of the caste system, and are highly marginalized to this day.
[4] According to the constitution, Bahun, Chetri, Thakuri, and Dasnami caste groups belong to the Khas Arya caste group.
[5] 61 Indigenous Peoples were initially officially recognized in Nepal through the ordinance, Rastriya Janajati Bikas Samiti (GathanAdesh) 2054. Indigenous Peoples have been officially and legally recognized by the government since 2002 (2059 B.S.) through the National Foundation for the Development of Indigenous Nationalities Act (known as the NFDIN Act), which lists 59 distinct Indigenous communities in the country. Of the initial 61 Indigenous Peoples list, Manange was dropped, Thinatan, Syangtan and Chitan were merged as Tin GaunleThakali and Yakkha was added, making it a list of 59 Indigenous Peoples.
[6] Bhattachan, B.Krishna. “The Indigenous World 2017: Nepal.” In The Indigenous World 2017, edited by Katrine Broch Hansen, Käthe Jepsen, and Pamela Leiva Jacquelin, 405-411. Copenhagen: IWGIA, 2017, https://www.iwgia.org/images/documents/indigenous-world/indigenous-world-2017.pdf
[7] Bhattachan, B.Krishna. “The Indigenous World 2018: Nepal.” In The Indigenous World 2018, edited by Pamela Jacquelin-Andersen, 371-378. Copenhagen: IWGIA, 2018, https://www.iwgia.org/images/documents/indigenous-world/indigenous-world-2018.pdf
[8] Bhattachan, B.Krishna. “The Indigenous World 2019: Nepal.” In The Indigenous World 2019, edited by David Nathaniel Berger, 366-373. Copenhagen: IWGIA, 2019, https://www.iwgia.org/en/nepal/3457-iw2019-nepal.html
[9] Bhattachan, B.Krishna. “The Indigenous World 2020: Nepal.” In The Indigenous World 2020, edited by Dwayne Mamo, 302-312. Copenhagen: IWGIA, 2020, https://www.iwgia.org/en/nepal/3607-iw-2020-nepal.html
[10] Bhattachan, B.Krishna. “The Indigenous World 2021: Nepal.” In The Indigenous World 2021, edited by Dwayne Mamo, 278-287. Copenhagen: IWGIA, 2021, https://www.iwgia.org/en/nepal/4236-iw-2021-nepal.html
[11] The 12 National Parks (NP) are: 1. Banke NP, 2. Bardiya NP, 3. Chitwan NP, 4. Khaptad NP, 5. Langtang NP, 6. Makalu Barun NP, 7. Parsa NP, 8. Rara NP, 9. Sagarmatha NP, 10. Shey-Phoksundo NP, 11. Shivapuri Nagrajun NP, and 12. Shukla Phanta NP. The only wildlife reserve is the Koshi Tappu Wildlife Reserve. The only Hunting Reserve is the Dhorpatan Hunting Reserve. There are six Conservation Areas are: (1) Annapurna CA, (2) Api Nampa CA, (3) Gaurishankar CA,(4) Kanchenjunga CA, (5) Krishnasaar CA and (6) Manaslu CA. There are13 Buffer Zones; See the map: Government of Nepal. Ministry of Forests and Environment. Department of National Parks and Wildlife Conservation, https://dnpwc.gov.np/en/; https://dnpwc.gov.np/en/
[12] Lawyers’ Association for Human Rights of Nepalese IPs and National Indigenous Women Federation. “Fact Finding Mission Report. Violation of Indigenous Peoples’ Human Rights in Chitwan National Park of Nepal.” February 2020, https://www.lahurnip.org/uploads/project/file/17.-violation-of-indigenous-peoples-human-rights-in-chitwan-national-park-of-nepal,-feb-2020.pdf
[13] United Nations. General Assembly. “Rights of indigenous peoples.” Seventy-seventh session, 2022, https://documents-dds-ny.un.org/doc/UNDOC/GEN/N22/431/62/PDF/N2243162.pdf
[14] Ibid.
[15] KIOS was founded by 11 Finnish NGOs; KIOS Foundation. “What is KIOS.”, https://kios.fi/en/about-copy/
[16] KIOS Foundation and Lawyers’ Association for Human Rights of Nepalese IPs. “Impact of Dhorpatan Hunting Reserve and Chitwan National Park on Indigenous Peoples in Nepal.” May 2022, p. xii, https://www.lahurnip.org/uploads/publication/file/impact-of-dhorpatan-hunting-reserve-and-chitwan-national-park-on-indigenous-peoples-in-nepal.pdf
[17] Ibid.
[18] NIWF. “Study of Selected Cases Indigenous Peoples Victimized by the Chitwan National Park During COVID -19 Pandemic.” July 2022.
[19] Bahun and Chetri are the dominant Hill Hindu castes.
[20] Kumar Paudel, Ramesh. “Chitwan National Park once again sets settlers’ huts ablaze.” The Kathmandu Post, 29 March 2022,https://kathmandupost.com/province-no-3/2022/03/29/chitwan-national-park-once-again-sets-settlers-huts-ablaze
[21] “Embedding Human Rights In Nature Conservation: From Intent To Action.” Report of the Independent Panel of Experts of the Independent Review of allegations raised in the media regarding human rights violations in the context of WWF’s conservation work, 17 November 2020, https://wwfasia.awsassets.panda.org/downloads/independent_panel_report___embedding_human_rights_in_conservation.pdf
[22] United Nations. General Assembly. “Rights of indigenous peoples.” Seventy-seventh session, p.6, 2022, https://documents-dds-ny.un.org/doc/UNDOC/GEN/N22/431/62/PDF/N2243162.pdf
[23] Its original text is in Kha Nepali language. The translation into English is mine; Sushant, Gurung. “‘Tribals’ organizations and movements also had to raise their voice at the right place.” Chetlung, https://www.chetlung.com/agenda/58888-1645097425.html
[24] Tharu, Urmila Gamva. “At present Jugmani Tharu cannot pick bells.” Jhannaya, https://jhannaya.nayapatrikadaily.com/news-details/1672/2022-03-26
[25] Facebook. MADRE, posted 16 June 2022.
[26] Pyakurel, Diwakar. “What’s blocking indigenous peoples and local communities in Nepal from Claiming their biodiversity rights?” Online Khabar, 14 December 2022, https://english.onlinekhabar.com/indigenous-peoples-nepal-biodiversity.html
[27] United Nations. OHCHR. 13 March 2009, https://tbinternet.ohchr.org/_layouts/15/treatybodyexternal/Download.aspx?symbolno=INT%2FCERD%2FALE%2FNPL%2F5514&Lang=en
[28] United Nations. OHCHR. 28 September 2009, https://tbinternet.ohchr.org/_layouts/15/treatybodyexternal/Download.aspx?symbolno=INT%2FCERD%2FALE%2FNPL%2F5513&Lang=en
[29] It is 265.
[30] Rai, Ganesh. “Dominance of Khas-Arya in the House of Representatives.” Ekantiour, 19 November 2022, https://ekantipur.com/news/2022/12/05/167020440869954762.html
[31] Pradhan, Tika R. “Nearly half of ethnic groups unrepresented in Parliament in 15 years of PR exercise.” The Kathmandu Post, 15 October 2022, https://kathmandupost.com/politics/2022/10/15/nearly-half-of-ethnic-groups-unrepresented-in-parliament-in-15-years-of-pr-exercise
[32] Ibid.
[33] Rai is one of the 59 Indigenous Peoples formally recognized by the government. However, Rai are divided as the Kirat Rai Yayokkha consider Rai as one Indigenous people and some Rai consider each of the more than 28 linguistic groups of Rai as separate Indigenous Peoples, which is reflected in the list as well.
[34] Narbadia Barghar Act 2077. 22 January 2022, https://barbardiyamun.gov.np/barghar_aen_2077
[35] “The Indigenous World 2021.” Edited by Dwayne Mamo, 278-287. Copenhagen: IWGIA, 2021, https://www.iwgia.org/en/nepal/4236-iw-2021-nepal.html
[36] Facebook. LAHURNIP, posted 23 May 2022.
[37] “Board Approves Panel Recommendation to Investigate Nepal Transmission Project; Parties to be Offered Option of Dispute Resolution.” Inspection Panel, 4 March 2022, https://www.inspectionpanel.org/news/board-approves-panel-recommendation-investigate-nepal-transmission-project-parties-be-offered
[38] Bhattachan, B.Krishna. “The Indigenous World 2021: Nepal.” In The Indigenous World 2021, edited by Dwayne Mamo, 278-287. Copenhagen: IWGIA, 2021, https://www.iwgia.org/en/nepal/4236-iw-2021-nepal.html
Tags: Land rights, Global governance, Human rights, IWGIA
